
i\.£^J_/XyY JYL1 i^Lv-fcvK., j\. JVL., Iv-m* D, 
Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences, Howard University, Washington D. C. 



OUR WAR 

FOR 

HUMAN RIGHTS 

BEING 

An Intensely Human and Brilliant Account of the World 

War and Why and For What Purpose America and 

the Allies Are Fighting and the Important 

Part Taken by the NEGRO 

INCLUDING 

The Horrors and Wonders of Modern Warfare, 

The New and Strange Devices that 

Have Come into Use, etc. 



"Fighting for the Rights of Mankind 

and for the 

Future Peace and Security of the World" 



By 
KELLY MILLER, A. M., LL. D. 

The Well-Known and Popular Author of Race Adjustment, 
"Out of the House of Bondage" and 
"The Disgrace of Democracy" 



Illustrated with 128 genuine pictures from recent official 

photographs, also outline map drawings 

made especially for this volume 



Published by 

AUSTIN JENKINS CO. 

Manufacturing Publishers of High Grade 

Subscription Books 

WASHINGTON, D. C. 



2 s 



&a 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1919, by Austin N. Jenkins 
in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. 



FEB -5 1919 

► CI. A 5 11 50 4 
& i 



INTRODUCTION. 

While the underlying causes of the greatest war in all his- 
tory must be traced far back into the centuries, the one great 
object of the conflict which was precipitated by the assassina- 
tion of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria, in Bosnia, 
at the end of June, 1914, is the ultimate determination as to 
whether Imperialism as exemplified in the government of Ger- 
many shall rule the world, or whether Democracy shall reign. 

Whenever men or nations disregard those principles which 
society has laid down for their conduct in modern civilized life, 
and obligation and duty are forgotten in the desire for self- 
advancement, conflict results. 

Since the days of Athens and Sparta the world's greatest 
wars have in the large been conflicts of ideals — democracy 
being arrayed against oligarchy — men fighting for individual 
rights as against militarism and military domination. 

In the present war, which ha, ainted the green fields of 
France and Belgium red with blood and swept nations into the 
most significant, and bitter struggle in all history, the fight is 
against the Imperial Government of Germany, by men and 
nations who concede that humanity the world over has rights 
that must be observed. 

Germany has brought upon herself a threatened destruc- 
tion by ruthlessly trampling upon her neighbors and assuming 
that "might is right." 

The Imperial Government, led by the House of Hohen- 
zollern is suffering from an exaggerated ego and is become 
paranoic. Her trouble is psychological. The men who study 
the strange workings and twists of the human mind which land- 
some men in the institutions for the criminal insane, agree that 
when any man becomes obsessed with an idea and "rides a 



vi INTRODUCTION. 

hobby" to the exclusion of all else, he loses his balance and 
develops an obliquity of view which makes him a dangerous 
creature. 

Germany as a nation is obsessed with the spirit of mili- 
tarism and almost everything else has been sacrificed to this 
idol. The very first appearance of Germans in history is as a 
warlike peoples. The earliest German literature is composed 
of folktales about war heroes. These stories tell of high ideals 
and manly virtues of the heroes. 

It is true that there are many scientists, poets and musi- 
cians among the Germans, but their warlike side must never be 
forgotten. The entire race is imbued with the military spirit, 
the influence reaching to every phase of national life. All that 
is best in the nation has been raised to its highest efficiency 
through military training, but in the accomplishment of its 
purposes the House of Hohenzollern, which is responsible for 
the development of the national fighting arm, has neglected 
much and produced millions of creatures who are but human 
machines, taught to obey orders without consideration as to 
the effect their acts might produce, whether right or wrong. 

In their criticisms of the Prussian militarism the world 
democracies define militarism as an arrogant, or exclusive, pro- 
fessional military spirit developed by training and environment 
until it becomes despotic, and assumes superiority over rational 
motives and deliberations. 

This attitude is reflected in the conduct of the Kaiser, who, 
as illustrative of the point, is quoted, at the dedication of the 
monument to Prince Frederick Charles at Frankfurt-on-the- 
Oder in 1891, as having said "We would rather sacrifice our 
eighteen army corps and our 42,000,000 inhabitants on the field 
of battle than surrender a single stone of what my father and 
Prince Charles Frederick gained." 

His speeches are filled with similar bombastic and extrava- 
gant expressions which have been the subject of international 




z 




o 


I* 


H 


3 


(X, 


01 


p 


a; 




Hi 


fc 

a 




<^ 


B 


( ) 


Clj 




£ 


H 


4-J 


<! 


c 




3 


r/i 


Ml 


Pi 


frt 


H 

H 
P 


a) 

3 


| 1 


c 


o 
m 


rt 
* 




o 







Pi 


f5 


rh 





H 


fl 


fc 


(U 




• IS 

to s -2 






THE NEGRO AND THE WAR v 

• [From The Philadelphia North American, June 1, 1918] 

Recently at Camp Upton Major General Bell addressed a cer- 
tain regiment of soldiers, and among other things said to them : 

" This is the best disciplined and best drilled and best spirited regiment 
that has been under my command at this cantonment. I predicted last fall that 
Colonel Moss would have the best regiment at Camp Upton, and you men 
have made my prediction come true. I would lead you in battle against any 
army in the world with every confidence in the outcome." 

He was speaking to an up-standing, fine-looking body of men. 
Every face in front of him glowed with pride at his praise. A feel- 
ing fully justified, for every private in his 367th regiment and 
most of the officers are negroes. They call themselves "The Buff- 
aloes," and undoubtedly when they get in action on the other 
side, the Huns unfortunate enough to be pitted against them will 
thereafter think of a buffalo as something to be avoided at any cost. 

This 367th is the only regiment in the new national army with 
a name, regimental stationery and a regimental swagger stick. It 
is one of the few with a regimental song and a regimental pennant. 
And a person who thinks these are matters of small consequence 
exhibits a lack of knowledge concerning the nature and needs of 
men who are going out to fight. 

We have heard that the negro doesn't make a good soldier ; 
that he is too lazy, too emotional or too unresponsive to discipline 
to be counted upon as a fighting factor. The facts in the case in- 
dicate exactly the opposite. The superlative praise we have quoted 
from General Bell, whose rank and long experience as a soldier 
lend added weight to such words, is amply backed by the record 
of history. As Lieutenant McKaine, himself a Buffalo, has said 
in an article in the Outlook — 

"The traditions of the negro as a soldier may be traced in the his- 
tory of the great Chaka in the Valley of the Nile thousands of years ago ; 
Hannibal, the greatest of tacticians, in the war between Carthage and 
Rome ; L'Ouverture in the Haitian rebellion against the mighty Na- 
poleon ; Attucks as the first casualty in America's first battle against the 
tyranny of George III on Boston Common ; black sailors with Perry on 
Lake Erie ; Black Samscn at Brandywine ; Peter Salem at Bunker Hill ; 
Carney at Fort Wagner ; the Twenty-fourth and Twenty fifth regiments 
of infantry and the Ninth and Tenth cavalry at El Caney and San Juan 
in Cuba and during the insurrection in the Philippines ; and the feat of the 
Tenth cavalry at Carrizal while with the punitive expedition in Mexico." 

And Colonel Moss, of the Buffaloes, a southerner by birth, 
and one of the best known military authorities in the world to- 
day, has said — 

" If properly trained and instructed, the colored man makes as good 
a soldier as the world has ever seen. The history of the negro in all of 



our wars, including our Indian campaigns, shows this. He is by nature 
of a happy disposition ; he is responsive and tractable ; he is very amen, 
able to discipline; he takes pride in his uniform ; he has faith and con- 
fidence in his leader ; he possesses physical courage — all of which are val- 
uable military assets. The secret of making an efficient soldier out of the 
colored man, lies in knowing the qualities he possesses that are military 
assets, which I have named, and then appealing to and developing them — 
this is, utilizing them to the greatest extent possible. 

" Make the colored man feel that you have faith in him, and then 
by sympathetic and conscientious training and instruction, help him to 
fit himself in a military way to vindicate that faith — to " make good." 
Be strict with him, but treat him fairly and justly. Let him know that 
he will always get what is coming to him, whether it be reward or pun- 
ishment. In other words, treat and handle the colored man as you would 
any other human being out of whom you would make a good soldier, out 
of whom you would get the best there is in him, and you will have as 
good a soldier as history has ever known — a man who will drill well, shoot 
well, march well, obey well, fight well — in short, a man who will give a good 
account of himself in battle, aud who will conduct and behave himself 
properly in camp, in garrison, and in other places. The American negro 
is going to perform a part in this war which will far outshine any pre 
vious service on his part. Already he is injecting into the new army a 
spirit which, if spread among all our soldiers in like degree, could 
not but greatly add to their effectiveness. Of all the men in our fighting 
forces, he is the one who most effectively uses the power of song. And 
this is a potent factor." 

As an army officer recently remarked — 

" The Metropolitan Opera Company, the Boston Opera Company, the Chicago 
Opera Company, the Hampton Quartet, the Fisk Jubilee Singers — you think some of 
these groups can sing. Well, you're wrong. They can't. You have never heard any 
singing unless you marched with the Twenty-fourth across the border after Villa in 
the spring of 1916." 

For the first time since the war which liberated them from slavery and gave 
them citizenship, they have a chance on a large scale to show how much they 
really appreciate freedom. As their people on every side are being encouraged 
and helped forward and aided in freeing themselves from the conditions of life 
which make for inefficiency and immorality, so in turn these regiments now 
have gone or will go to free the world from intolerable conditions which threaten 
a worse slavery than that which their fathers endured. It is truly a wonderful 
chance for a people to show appreciation of a great service rendered them. 

Surely regiments like the Buffaloes have it in their power to do something 
more than fight when they get to France. They have it in their power to 
refresh and renew in war-wearied comrades of other countries that spirit with- 
out which no military organization can be effective. 

We have heard more than one story of troops going into action with a song 
on their lips. The most thrilling of these stories is yet to come, however. For 
when our negro soldiers march forward to the music of their own voices, a new 
note shall have been sounded. And its echo will earry not only to othei fight- 
ers near at hand, but to non-combatant millions far away, whose effectiveness 
is to be measured largely by the degree to which they can be inspired with the 
vision of democracy triumphant. 



.".■ r >\ 


i ' m' 'P ' 




' ■ tltlM * i 






j^ffl W9*B m^i^' 






Kp 






ijgjjfc *TJ&M *J? 




# 


• 








JraHfll » Pi ■ 












I 1 • 


1 






• 




pppiii pj 




'J 4,4'' X*'". ;-: f 


^ffi^* 


l\!,lW| 


m 


VjS|§i 


HKrH' 


5 !j 


, : .., .... 
' ■'■■" • ■ : 

■,,: 






• ; '^SS^Sr^"' 


1 




-.^1h^m|^PH^ ^ : _ 


'■ 










%^M$BmLy ' 






'$4 tt g|t£-f 




















. 


i 

1 ' : 

■ N 
< 


. •.'.'ImuBSS*-' '** 




^ 



J3 




nn 








Sh 




>, 




o 
O 


ft o 




<J h u n 




« cu 




h n 




4-> 




55 i. 




M 01 




_ > 




« h 




H ,2 






o 

Q 


ft 








w 


ni 


pq 






71 


03 


s« 


Uh 


4-> 


o 
o 


OH 


tf 




H 


>> 


ft 




3 


S 


u 




« 


to 

0) 


fa 


43 




Q n 

« S 

gg 
0-3 

< £ 

£ o 

o-g 

££ 
ft 

ffl -3 

P .2 

O 5 
u * 

o ^ 

^ S 1 

o .5 

£ s 

Eh cd 

a d 

i— i 

J s 

Eh to 
Eh .S 



H . 

« 2 

S B 

° 5 

O ^ 

Eh .5 

ttJ d 

M > 

Eh >, 






Private 
Henry Johnson 




Private 
Needham Roberts 



Of the New York National Guards (now the 369th), who have been decorated by 
the French for routing 24 Germans and preventing the carrying out of a well- 
developed plan to assail one of the most important points of resistance on the 
American front. They have been awarded the War Cross by the French General 
of the division under whom they are serving. 




Copyrighted bv Committee on Public Information 
COLORED SOLDIERS BUILDING ROADS "OVER THERE." 







Copyrighted by Committee on Public Information. 
COLORED SOLDIERS IN THE TRENCHES "OVER THERE." 
(Note the tin hats.) 
















From The Argus. 
NEWTON D. BAKER, SECRETARY OF WAR, 
Personally inquiring about the welfare of the Colored American Soldiers, who 
are now "over there." 




MAKING SOLDIERS SOMEWHERE IN AMERICA. DO YOU KNOW THEM? 




Copyrighted by Committee on Public Information. 
HOTEL BOOKER T. WASHINGTON "OVER THERE." 
The Negro Soldiers are surely fighting for Democracy. It is coming to them 
by leaps and bounds. 




Copyrighted by Committee on Public Information. 

COLORED SOLDIERS LEAVING AN AMERICAN PORT FOR "OVER THERE." 
(See them dancing on the right.) 



•fa-™- 

I*- 



-hm«^»« an M— fa— tl^ «■— >■ ■• aa ■■■_■■ — ,>■ m. Ha an__Nii— Ma..^— ua- 



-««— •«»— aa— »■••$• 

■ llll II « IIB. .J. " 



The Late Major Walker, of the First Colored Battalion, 
District of Columbia National Guard 




THE late Major James E. Walker was born in Virginia, Sep- 
tember 7, 1874. He was educated in the public schools of 
Washington, D. C, and was graduated from the M Street 
High School in 1893, and the Miner Normal School in 1894. For 
twenty-four years he was in the public- school service, and since 
1899 was supervising principal. In 1896 he was made Lieutenant in 
the First Separate Battalion of the National Guard of the District 
of Columbia. In 1909 he was made Captain and in 1912, through 
competitive examination, was commissioned Major. His command 
was called out to guard the White House, and while on this duty 
Major Walker's health became impaired. He was sent to the U. S. 
Hospital at Fort Bayard, New Mexico, for treatment, where he died 
April 4, 1918. 



I 



,*-»< 



■ an— ■■.•}• 



INTRODUCTION. vii 

comment for many years. Other countries besides Germany 
have maintained great armies, but their maintenance has been 
but an incidental part of the general business of the nation and 
there was no submerging of the spirit which seeks and demands 
appropriate public ideals in government and action. So that 
while other elements have always tended to produce friction 
between neighboring countries, it was adamant, stubborn, mili- 
tary Prussianism which asserted itself in the middle of 1914 and 
set the world afire. 

What the ultimate cost in lives, money, morals and weak- 
ening of humanity as a whole will sum up cannot be written for 
years to come. In our own great struggle, which had for its 
object the liberation of the negro, the scars which the South 
received have not yet been eliminated. Portions of the country 
devastated by the soldiers still bear the marks of the invasion, 
but what was lost in money and material things was made up 
by the welding together of the two sections of the country. The 
Union was made a concrete, humanitarian body of citizens. 
The battle was for the right and liberty triumphed. 

Just as America fought for liberty in the stirring days of 
1776, and her peoples fought one another in the trying days of 
1861-65, so America has been drawn into the world's war that 
the principles of liberty for which she has ever stood may be 
perpetuated throughout the world and an international peace 
may be established, which will for all time end such convulsions 
as have shaken the world since August, 1914, when the first 
shots were fired in fair Belgium by German invaders. 



CONTENTS. 



INTEODUCTION v 

CHAPTEE L 

THE FLASH THAT SET THE WOELD AFLAME m 

Teutons Find in a Muedeb the Excuse foe Wae — Geemany Inspired by Am- 
bitions FOE WOELD CONTBOL — THE STBUGGLE FOE COMMEECIAL SUPEEMACY A 

Factoe — The Underlying Motives 17 

CHAPTEK II. 

WHY AMEEICA ENTEEED THE WAE. 

The Iron Hand of Prussianism — The Aeeogant Hohenzolleen Attitude — 
Seceetaby Lane Tells Why We Fight — Beoken Pledges — Laws Violated 
— Prussianism the Child of Barbaeity — Gebmany's Plans foe a World 
Empibe 25 

CHAPTEE III. . . 

THE THINGS THAT MADE MEN MAD. 

Germany's Barbaeity — The Devastation of Belgium — Human Fiends — Fire- 
brand and Torch — Eape and Pillage — The Slacking of Louvain — Wanton 
Destruction — Official Pboof 41 

AETICLE IV. 

THE SLINKING SUBMAEINE. 

A Voeacious Sea Monster — The Euthless Destructive Policy of Germany — 
Starvation of Nations the Goal — How the Submarines Operate — Some 
Peesonal Experiences * . 64 

CHAPTEE V. 
THWARTING THE U-BOAT. 

Nets to Entangle the Sea Sharks of War — " Chasers " or " Skimming 
dish " Boats — " Blimps " and Seaplanes — Hunting the Submarine with 
" Lance" Bomb and Gun — A Sailoe's Description 82 

CHAPTEE VI. 

THE EYES OF BATTLE. 

Aeeoplanes and Airships — They Spy the Movements of Forces on Land or 
Sea — Lead Disastrous Bomb Attacks — Valuable in " Spotting " Sub- 
marines — The Bombaedment at Mes sines Eidge •.• 98 



x CONTENTS. 

CHAPTEE VII. 

WAE'S STEANGE DEVICES. 

Chemistry a Demon of Destruction — Poison Gas Bombs — Gas Masks — Hand 
Grenades — Mortars — " Tanks " — Feudal " Battering Eams " — Steel Hel- 
mets — Strange Bullets — Motor Plows — Eeal Dogs of War 113 

CHAPTEE VIII. 

WONDEEFUL WAE WEAPONS. 

The Terrible Eapid-fire Gun — Armored Automobiles and Automobile Artillery 
— Howitzers — Mounted Forts — Armored Trains — Observation Towers — 
Wireless Apparatus — The Army Pantry.' 133 

CHAPTEE IX. 

THE WOELD'S AEMIES. 

The Efficient German Organization — The Landwehr and Landsturm — 
General Forms of Military Organization — The Brave French Troops — 
The Picturesque Italian Soldiery — The Peace and War Strength — 
Available Fighting Men — Fortifications 152 

CHAPTEE X 

THE WOELD'S NAVIES. 

Germany's Sea Strength — Great Britain's Immense War Fleet — Immense 
Fighting Craft — The United States' New Battle Cruisers — The Fastest 
and Biggest Ocean Fighting Ships — The Picturesque Marines : THE 
Soldiers of the Sea 171 

CHAPTEE XI. 

THE NATIONS AT WAE. 

Unexpected Developments — How the War Flames Spread — A Score of Coun- 
tries Involved — The Points of Contact — Picturesque and Eugged 
Bulgaria, Eoumania, Servia, Greece, Italy and Historic Southeast 
Europe 187 

CHAPTEE XII. 

MODEEN WAE METHODS. 

Individual Initiative as Against Mass Movements — Trench Warfare a Game 
of Hide and Seek — Eats and Disease— Surgery's Triumphs — Changed Tac- 
thcs — Italian Mountain Fighting 209 



CONTENTS. xi 

CHAPTER XIII. 

WOMAN AND THE WAR. 

She has Won " Her Place in the Sun " — Rich and Poor in the Munitions 
Factories — Nuese and Ambulance Driver — Khaki and Tkouseks — Organ- 
izer and Farmer — Heroes in the Stress of Circumstances — Doing Men's 
Work for Men — Even a " Bobbie." 226 

CHAPTER XIV. 

THE TERRIBLE PRICE. 

A Nation of Men Destroyed — Millions in Shipping and Commerce Destroyed — 
World's Maps Changed — Billions in Money — Immense Debts — Nation's 
Wealth — The United States a Great Provideb 244 

CHAPTER XV. 

THE WORLD RULERS AT WAR. 

Woodrow Wilson, the Champion of Democracy — The Egotistical Kaiser — 
The German Crown Prince — Britain's Monarch — Constantine Who Quit 
Rather than Fight Germany — President Poincaire — And Other National 
Heads 256 

CHAPTER XVI. 

THE WAR'S WHO'S WHO. 

Striking Figueess in the Conflict — Joffre, the Hero of Marne — Nivelle, the 
French Commander — Sir Douglas Haig — The Kaiser's Chancellor — Ven- 
izelos — " Black Jack " Pershing 272 

CHAPTER XVII. 

CHEMISTRY IN THE WAR. 

Substitutes for Cotton — Nitrates Produced from Air — Yeast a Real Sub- 
stitute foe Beef — Seaweed Made to Give up Potash — A Gangrene Pre- 
ventitve — Soda Made Out of Salt Water — America Chemically Indepen- 
dent 289 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

OUR NEIGHBORING ALLY. 

Canada's Recruiting— Raise 33,000 Troops in Two Months— First Expedi- 
tionary Force to Cross Atlantic — Bravery at Ypres and Lens — Meeting 
Difficult Problems — Quebec Aroused by Conscription 299 



xii CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER XIX. 
THE HEROIC ANZAC. 

FOBCES THAT StIEBED THE WORLD IN THE GALLIPOLI CAMPAIGNS — FAMOUS AS SAP- 

pebs — The Blasting of Messines Ridge — Two Yeabs Tunneling — 30,000 
Gebmans Blown to Atoms — 1,000,000 Pounds of Explosives Used — Troops 
that Were Tbanspobted 11,000 Miles 318 

CHAPTER XX. 

AMERICA STEPS IN. 

President Wilson's Famous Message to Congbess — The War Resolution — 
April 6, 1917, Sees the United States at War — Review of the Negotia- 
tions Between Germany and America — The U-Boat Restbicted Zone An- 
nouncement of Gebmany — Pbemieb Lloyd George on America in the Con- 
flict 327 

CHAPTER XXI. 

UNCLE SAM TAKES HOLD. 

Makes World's Biggest War Loan — Seize German Ships — Intrigue Exposed — ■ 
General Pershing and Staff in Europe — The Navy on Duty in North Sea 
— First United States Troops Reach France — Germany's Attempts to 
Sink Troop Ships Thwarted by Navy's Guns '.' t . 355 

CHAPTER XXII. 

A GERMAN CRISIS. 

The Downfall of Bethmann-Hollweg — The Crown Prince in the Lime Light 
— Hollweg's Unique Career! — Db. Geobg Michaelis Appointed Chancellor 
—The Eatseb and How He Gets His Immense Power 372 

CHAPTER XXIII. 

UNCLE SAM AND THE NEUTRALS. 

Pbesident Wilson Puts Embargo on Food Shipments — Scandinavian Countries 
Furnishing Supplies to Germany Inspires Obdeb — The Difficult Position 
of Nobway, Denmark, Holland and Switzerland 38C 

CHAPTER XXIV. 

THE ACTIONS OF THE WAR. 

From Bosnia to Flanders — Marne the Turning Point of the Conflict — The 
Conquests of Sebvia and Rumania — The Fall of Bagdad — Russia's Women 
soldiees — amebica's conscripts 391 



CONTENTS. xiii 

. CHAPTER XXV. 

AMERICAN FORCES BECOME FACTOR. 

United States Soldiers Inspired Allied Troops — Russian Government Col- 
lapses — Italian Army Fails — Allied War Council Formed — Fooh Com- 
mands Allied Armies — Pershing Offers American Troops — Under Fire — 
U-Boat Bases Raided by British 401 

CHAPTER XXVI. 

AMERICANS TURN WAR'S TIDE. 

Brilliant American Fighting Stops Hun Advance — French and British In- 
spired — Famous Marines Lead in Picturesque Attack — Halt Germans at 
Chateau-Thierry — Used Open Style Fighting — Thousands of Germans 
Slain — United States Troops in Siberia — New Conscription Bill Passed — 
Allied Successes on All Fronts 417 

CHAPTER XXVII. 

VICTORY— PEACE. 

The German Empire Collapses — Foch's Strategy Wins — American Inspiration 
a Big Factor — Bulgaria, Turkey and Austria Quit War — Monarchs 
Fall — Kaiser Abdicates and Flees Germany — Armistice Signed — November 
11, Peace .425 



CHAPTER I. 

THE FLASH THAT SET THE WORLD AFLAME. 

Teutons Find in a Muedee the Excuse foe Wae — Germany Inspired by Am- 
bitions FOE WOELD CONTBOL — THE StBUGGLE FOE COMMEECIAL StTPEEMACY A 

Factob — The Undeelying Motives. 

THE assassination of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir 
apparent to the throne of Austria, together with his wife, 
in Bosnia, during the last days of June, 1914, is com- 
monly regarded as the blow which forged the chain that bound 
the European powers in bloody warfare. The tragedy was the 
signal for putting on the world stage the greatest war play of 
all times. 

When Austria, regarding the murder of the Archduke as 
a National affront, precipitated the conflict which has con- 
vulsed the universe, she marked the way easy for Imperial Ger- 
many to put into effect a long-contemplated plan for territo- 
rial expansion, and to wage a warfare so insidious, so brutal 
and so ruthless in its character as to amaze the civilized world. 

Word-pictures were drawn, so to speak, of a mighty 
nation striving to burst iron bands that were slowly strangling 
her, and her perfectly natural wish to find outlets for her 
rapidly growing population and commerce. Germany sought 
to obtain "a place in the sun," to use one of the Kaiser's most 
unfortunate expressions, and the world soon found that the 
"place" included the territory embracing a few ports on the 
English channel, with control of Holland and Belgium, 
Poland, the Balkan countries, a big slice of Asia Minor, 
Egypt, English and French colonies in Africa, not to mention 
remote possibilities* 

Germany's ambitions may have been laudable, but her 
methods of trying to satisfy these ambitions were not such as 

H R— 2 17 



18 THE FLASH THAT SET THE WORLD AFLAME. 

to either gain for her the "solar warmth" which she sought to 
win, or gain for her the friendship of the nations of the civilized 
world. The drama which Germany directed moved swiftly in 
this wise : 

Austria claimed that Servia, as a Nation, was responsible 
for the assassination of the Archduke in Bosnia. She sent an 
ultimatum to Belgrade, making demands which the Servians 
could not admit. Thereupon Austria declared war and moved 
across the Danube with her army. 

THE FOUR GROUPS. 

Austria's attack threatened to disturb the balance of 
power, because at the time the continent was divided into four 
groups: The close alliance of the central powers — Germany, 
Austria and Italy — referred to as the Triple Alliance or Drei- 
bund; the Triple Entente, or understanding between Great 
Britain, France and Russia; the smaller group whose neutral- 
ity and integrity had been guaranteed, or at least recognized — 
Belgium, Denmark, Holland and the Grand Duchy of Luxem- 
bourg, sandwiched in between Germany, France and Belgium, 
together with Switzerland. The fourth group included the 
Balkan nations : Bulgaria, Servia, Montenegro, Greece, Tur- 
key and Roumania, all drawn close to Russia; Norway and 
Sweden, and the Iberian nations, Spain and Portugal. The 
increase in the power of one of these groups would at any time 
have been sufficient to precipitate a war, but in the movement 
of Austria against Servia there entered a racial element. 
There was a threatened drawing of another Slavonic peoples 
into the Teutonic system. Besides this, the action let loose the 
flood of militarism which civilization had been holding in check. 

With this situation in mind, it is easy to understand how 
Germany could precipitate a world conflict by attempting to 
keep open the way to the near East, and controlling the mar- 
kets as against Britain, France and Russia. Back of all this 
was the question of commercial supremacy, Germauy showing 



THE FLASH THAT SET THE WORLD AFLAME. 19 

her intention of keeping the way open to the near East and 
dominating the markets as against Britain, France and Russia. 
Russia could not stand by and see one of her Slavonic 
wards crushed, and France, which held the Russian national 
debt, prepared to support her debtor, whereupon Germany, 
threatened on both sides, struck. In doing so the Kaiser ig- 
nored the rights of the small neutral states, invaded Belgium 
and brought his armies within threatening distance of Eng- 
land. France prepared to defend her country against Ger- 
many, and England, alarmed by the move of Germany and 
sympathizing with Belgium, struck back to avert the disaster 
which she felt must follow the German movement, which had 
been threatening for years. 

REGARDED EACH OTHER WITH SUSPICION." 
All attempts to maintain a balance of power between the 
European countries were from time to time jeopardized by 
various developments. The elements in the continental group 
struggled against each other, and the Nations, while seemingly 
at rest, regarded each other with suspicion. One of the under- 
lying forces that the world knew must at some time be felt was 
of racial origin. The historical explanations of the war would 
involve the retelling of almost everything that has happened 
in Europe for more than a century. 

But it is necessary to the long train of evil consequences 
which have followed the interference of other powers in the 
settlement of affairs between Russia and Turkey after the war 
of 1877, when Russia was victorious. Russia and Turkey had 
agreed upon a large Bulgaria and an enlarged and independ- 
ent Servia, but at the Berlin Congress, which Austria had taken 
the initiative in calling, Austria showed that she wished to have 
as much as possible of this Christian territory of Southeastern 
Europe kept under the domination or nominal authority of 
Turkey. Austria feared Russia's influence with the new coun- 
tries of Servia, Roumania, Bulgaria and Montenegro, and 



20 THE FLASH THAT SET THE WORLD AFLAME. 

therefore she desired to have this territory remain Turkish by 
influence, to the end that she might some day acquire part or 
all of it for herself. 

One of the articles of the agreement of Berlin turned 
Bosnia and Herzegovina over to Austria for temporary occu- 
pation and management. Austria was a trustee of the country 
which lies between Servia and the Adriatic sea, and while Aus- 
tria's management was efficient, Servia looked forward to the 
time when a union could be effected with Bosnia, which would 
provide Servia with an outlet to the sea. 

THE SERVIANS EMBITTERED. 

But when Russia fell humiliated by the Japanese and the 
Young Turks reformed their government, and there was pros- 
pect that the Turks might demand the evacuation of Bosnia by 
Austria, the powers that had engaged in the Berlin treaty were 
informed that Austria had decided to make Bosnia and Herze- 
govina a part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The Ser- 
vians were embittered, because this stood in the way of their 
attaining their ideals, and their country was landlocked. 

With this bitterness rankling in her national breast, Servia 
joined forces with Bulgaria, Greece and Montenegro to drive 
the Turks out of Europe. The larger powers, including Aus- 
tria, tried to prevent the action, but the heroic Balkan struggle 
is a matter of history. Servia was to have secured as a share 
of the conquered territory a portion of Albania, on the Adri- 
atic. This would have compensated her for the loss of Bosnia, 
but the great powers, led by Austria, stepped in, and a plan 
was devised of making Albania an independent state or princi- 
pality, with a German prince to rule over it. 

The Servians were bitter, and both Servia and Greece 
demanded of Bulgaria portions of the territory acquired in the 
war and which had originally been assigned to Bulgaria as her 
share. Bulgaria stood upon her technical rights and precipi- 
tated the last Balkan war, which was really made possible, or 



THE FLASH THAT SET THE WORLD AFLAME. 21 

probable, by the Austrian policy. When the war was con- 
cluded Servia had acquired more territory to the south, but she 
remained a landlocked country, with Bosnia, Montenegro and 
Albania stretching between her and the Adriatic sea. 

This was the situation when the assassination of the Arch- 
duke Ferdinand and his wife occurred in Bosnia. The Arch- 
duke was, in effect, a joint ruler with the Emperor Franz 
Joseph, who was nearly 84 years of age, and the entire world 
realized that great events were likely to follow the killing of 
the heir apparent to the Austro-Hungarian throne. The mur- 
der was committed by a young Servian fanatic, and Austria 
determined to hold Servia responsible for the murder, and 
therefore presented her now-famous ultimatum. 

NO CAUSE FOR WAR. 

Students of history hold that if there had been a proper 
respect for the commendable desire of the Christian peoples in 
European Turkey to throw off the Turkish yoke and become 
self-governing states, there would have been no cause for war, 
so far as relates to Servia and the situation which precipitated 
the conflict. There would have been developed a series of 
peaceful and progressive countries of the non-military type of 
Denmark, Sweden and Holland. 

A wiser treatment of the Balkan problem might have 
averted the war, but it could not have set aside racial differ- 
ences, nor could it have ended the curse of militarism or set at 
rest the distrust and fear which it promotes. 

The end of European militarism might have come about, 
however, through a better understanding between Germany 
and France. This might have been arrived at years ago if 
Germany had opened the Alsace-Lorraine question, and had 
rearranged the boundary line between the two countries so that 
the French-speaking communities lost in the Franco-Prussian 
war be ceded back to France. The cost of maintaining the 
feud over Alsace-Lorraine has been a burden to both France 



22 THE FLASH THAT SET THE WORLD AFLAME. 

and Germany, and the progress which Germany has made in 
world affairs, despite the burden of militarism which she has 
carried, is one of the marvels of the century. And the situation 
compelled France to maintain a defensive military organiza- 
tion which was as great a burden to her and barrier to world 
peace as the military burden of Germany. 

STRAIN BETWEEN GERMANY AND RUSSIA. 

Whether Germany conspired to bring on the war so that 
she could wage a campaign of aggression has not yet been 
made clear, but the strain between Germany and Russia had 
been growing for some time, and the assassination of the Teu- 
tonic heir, Francis Ferdinand, by a ward of Russia, created an 
occasion which gave Germany an opportunity to fight, without 
being compelled to directly precipitate the conflict. Russia 
could do naught else but come to the aid of Servia, and Ger- 
many by reason of her alliance with Austria must aid the latter 
country. 

Germany anticipated the entry of Italy into the conflict 
as the third member of the Triple Alliance, but Italy did not 
regard Germany's action as defensive and declined to aid Aus- 
tria. Germany had made overtures to Great Britain, but Eng- 
land had an understanding with France, which was in the 
nature of a limited alliance, and Germany might have kept 
England out of the struggle; but Germany proceeded with a 
plan to invade France by way of Belgium, which was in viola- 
tion of international agreement establishing Belgium's neu- 
trality and independence. Germany had nothing to gain by 
choosing the Belgium route, for the fact is that even had the 
Belgian government approved the movement, there must have 
been a French counter-movement, which would have made Bel- 
gium the theatre of war just the same. 

Pan-Germanism has been described as one of the under- 
lying motives in the world war, and Pan- Slavism has always 
opposed Pan-Germanism. Pan-Germanism is described as a 



THE FLASH THAT SET THE WORLD AFLAME. 23 

well-defined policy or movement which seeks the common wel- 
fare of the Germanic peoples of all Europe and the advance 
of Teutonic culture, while Pan- Slavism, represented by Rus- 
sia, seeks in the main the uniting of all the Slavonic folk for 
common welfare. The contact between these two has always 
been seething, and the racial differences made burdensome the 
arbitrary alignment and political geography arranged by the 
Berlin Congress. 

OUTLETS TO THE WORLD'S MARKET. 

The commercial side, however, was a big factor, for Ger- 
many sought world markets for its products. In the near East 
are the grain fields of Mesopotamia, and in the far East are 
the vast markets of India and China. The great banking and 
financial interests of Europe have been seeking the conquest of 
Asia for nearly half a century. German capital built railroads 
through Asia Minor, but English capital controls the Suez 
Canal. Russia welded the Balkan states until the Slavonic 
wedge from the Black sea to the Adriatic barred Germany's 
way to the Orient. England threatened the Kaiser's expan- 
sion on the sea; while Russia, on one side, with France her 
strong ally, closed the Germans in on opposite sides. So Ger- 
many must have outlets to the world markets. 

The religious element was also a factor in the affairs of 
Europe, for the territory has been divided into four large reli- 
gious groups for centuries. Moslems counted several millions 
of Turks, Bosnians and Albanians in Europe, the Prot- 
estants among the Germans, English, Swiss and Hungarians 
number about 100,000,000, while the Roman Catholics in all 
the Latin countries, Southern Germany, Croatia, Albania, 
Bohemia, and in Russian Austria and Russian Poland are 
about 180,000,000. The Greek Catholics in Russia, the Balkan 
countries and a few provinces in the Austrian Empire number 
more than 110,000,000. 

The differences in religion have precipitated many Euro- 



24 THE FLASH THAT SET THE WORLD AFLAME. 

pean struggles, but for more than a century the countries have 
been forced to assume an attitude of tolerance, so that churches 
other than those established by the State have thrived. But 
just what influence religions may have had in the various inci- 
dents of the war it is difficult to determine. 

The outstanding fact is that but for the arrogant, mili- 
taristic policy of Imperial Germany, the differences between 
nations might have been settled, and almost indescribable 
horrors of the war would never have been experienced. 



CHAPTER II. 

WHY AMERICA ENTERED THE WAR. 

The Ibon Hand of Prussianism — The Arrogant Hohenzollern Attitude; — 
Secretaey Lane Tells Why We Fight — Broken Pledges — Laws Violated 
— Prussianism the Child of Barbarity — Germany's Plans for a World 

Empire. 

NOT merely to prevent Germany from opening avenues of 
commerce to the seas nor to throttle the ambitions of 
the Kaiser was America drawn into the vortex of war 
with France, England, Russia, Belgium, Italy and other 
nations ; but that the iron hand of Prussianism, as exemplified 
in the conduct of the German Government, might be lifted 
from the shoulders of men, and the world given that measure 
of peace and security which modern civilization demands. 

Germany by her ruthless submarine warfare brought deso- 
lation to many American homes. She sank without a pang of 
conscience the great transatlantic steamship Lusitania, and, 
while pretending friendship for the United States and plead- 
ing no intent to disregard American rights, broke her own 
pledges and repeated her overt acts, ignoring international law 
and the rights of all neutrals at sea. 

She began her outlawry by the invasion of Belgium, 
which was followed by conduct on the part of the German 
forces which clearly marked them descendants of the "wolf 
tribes" of feudal days, righting with the motto before them of, 
"To the victor belong the spoils." 

But all of Germany's diabolical acts involving the peace 
and security of America and American citizens might have 
been the subject of international adjudication but for the arro- 
gance of the ruling forces of the Teutons. In a broad sense, 
Prussianism is credited with responsibility for the devastating 
war and for the policy which drew America into the conflict. 

The country, led by President Woodrow Wilson, who 

25 



26 WHY AMERICA ENTERED THE WAR. 

temporized to an extent that for a time made him the subject 
of bitter criticism, found that war was being forced upon it by 
an autocratic and ambitious German Government — that of the 
Hohenzollern dynasty- — which possessed an insane ambition to 
dominate the earth, leaving to America no alternative but to 
borrow the piratical terrorism of Imperialistic Germany, with 
temporary abandonment of its own constitutional free govern- 
ment, and join the Allies to defend it. 

In the sense which Prussianism or militarism is here used 
it denotes a mental attitude or view. It is a condition of mind 
which is partisan, exaggerated and egotistical, and is developed 
by environment and training. Just as the professional spirit 
in any other occupation leads to an exhibition of exaggerated 
importance, the despotic doctrine of militarism assumes supe- 
riority over rational motives and deliberations. Everything 
must be sacrificed to perpetuate and maintain the honor and 
prestige of the military. 

WHAT MILITARISM IS. 

What that militarism is and what it has done to America, 
and to the whole world, is best summed up in the words of 
Secretary Lane, of the Department of the Interior, at Wash- 
ington, who in an address before the Home Club of the De- 
partment on June 4, 1917, just when America was beginning 
to send forces to Europe, said : 

"America is at war in self-defense and because she could 
not keep out ; she is at war to save herself with the rest of the 
world from the nation that has linked itself with the Turk and 
adopted the methods of Mahomet, setting itself to make the 
world bow before policies backed by the organized and scien- 
tific military system. 

"Why are we fighting Germany? The brief answer is 
that ours is a war of self-defense. We did not wish to fight 
Germany. She made the attack upon us; not on our shores, 
but on our ships, our lives, our rights, our future. For two 



WHY AMERICA ENTERED THE WAR. 27 

years and more we held to a neutrality that made us apologists 
for things which outraged man's common sense of fair play 
and humanity. 

"At each new offense— the invasion of Belgium, the kill- 
ing of civilian Belgians, the attacks on Scarborough and other 
defenseless towns, the laying of mines in neutral waters, the 
fencing off of the seas — and on and on through the months, 
we said: 

" 'This is war — archaic, uncivilized war, but war. All 
rules have been thrown away ; all nobility ; man has come down 
to the primitive brute. And while we cannot justify, we can- 
not intervene. It is not our war.' 

IN WAR TO DEFEND RIGHTS. 

"Then why are we in? Because we could not keep out. 
The invasion of Belgium, which opened the war, led to the 
invasion of the United States by slow, steady, logical steps. 
Our sympathies evolved into a conviction of self-interest. Our 
love of fair play ripened into alarm at our own peril. 

"We talked in the language and in the spirit of good faith 
and sincerity, as honest men should talk, until we discovered 
that our talk was construed as cowardice. And Mexico was 
called upon to cow us. 

"We talked as men would talk who cared alone for peace 
and the advancement of their own material interests, until we 
discovered that we were thought to be a nation of mere money- 
makers, devoid of all character — until, indeed, we were told 
that we could not walk the highways of the world without per- 
mission of a Prussian soldier, that our ships might not sail 
without wearing a striped uniform of humiliation upon a nar- 
row path of national subservience. 

"We talked as men talk who hope for honest agreement, 
not for war, until we found that the treaty torn to pieces at 
Liege was but the symbol of a policy that made agreements 
worthless against a purpose that knew no word but success. 



28 WHY AMEKICA ENTERED THE WAR. 

"And so we came into this war for ourselves. It is a war 
to save America, to preserve self-respect, to justify our right 
to live as we have lived, not as some one else wishes us to live. 
In the name of freedom we challenge with ships and men, 
money and an undaunted spirit, that word Verboten' which 
Germany has written upon the sea and upon the land. 

"For America is not the name of so much territory. It is 
a living spirit, born in travail, grown in the rough school of 
bitter experiences, a living spirit which has purpose and pride 
and conscience, knows why it wishes to live and to what end, 
knows how it comes to be respected of the world, and hopes to 
retain that respect by living on with the light of Lincoln's love 
of man as its old and new testaments. 

AMERICA MUST LIVE. 

"It is more precious that this America should live than 
that we Americans should live. And this America as we now 
see has been challenged from the first of this war by the strong 
arm of a power that has no sympathy with our purpose, and 
will not hesitate to destroy us if the law that we respect, the 
rights that are to us sacred, or the spirit that we have, stand 
across her set will to make this world bow before her policies, 
backed by her organized and scientific military system. The 
world of Christ — a neglected but not a rejected Christ — has 
come again face to face with the world of Mahomet, who willed 
to win by force. 

"With this background of history and in this sense, then, 
we fight Germany : 

"Because of Belgium — invaded, outraged, enslaved, im- 
poverished Belgium. We cannot forget Liege, Louvain and 
Cardinal Mercier. Translated into terms of American history 
these names stand for Bunker Hill, Lexington and Patrick 
Henry. 

"Because of France — invaded, desecrated France, a mil- 
lion of whose heroic sons have died to save the land of Lafay- 



WHY AMERICA ENTERED THE WAR. 29 

ette. Glorious, golden France, the preserver of the arts, the 
land of noble spirit. The first land to follow our lead into 
republican liberty. 

"Because of England — from whom came the laws, tradi- 
tions, standards of life and inherent love of liberty which we 
call Anglo-Saxon civilization. We defeated her once upon the 
land and once upon sea. But Australia, New Zealand, Africa 
and Canada are free because of what we did. And they are 
with us in the fight for the freedom of the seas. 

"Because of Russia — new Russia. She must not be over- 
whelmed now. Not now, surely, when she is just born into 
freedom. Her peasants must have their chance; they must go 
to school to Washington, to Jefferson and to Lincoln, until 
they know their way about in this new, strange world, of gov- 
ernment by the popular will ; and 

"Because of other peoples, with their rising hope that the 
world may be freed from government by the soldier. 

GERMANY'S CRIMES AGAINST US. 

"We are fighting Germany because she sought to terrorize 
us and then to fool us. We could not believe that Germany 
would do what she said she would do upon the seas. 

"We still hear the piteous cries of children coming up out 
of the sea where the Lusitania went down. And Germany has 
never asked forgiveness of the world. 

"We saw the Sussex sunk, crowded with the sons and 
daughters of neutral nations. 

"We saw ship after ship sent to the bottom — ships of 
mercy bound out of America for the Belgian starving; ships 
carrying the Red Cross and laden with the wounded of all 
nations ; ships carrying food and clothing to friendly, harmless, 
terrorized peoples ; ships flying the Stars and Stripes- — sent to 
the bottom hundreds of miles from shore, manned by Ameri- 
can seamen, murdered against all law, without warning. 

"We believed Germany's promise that she would respect 



30 WHY AMERICA ENTERED THE WAR. 

the neutral flag and the rights of neutrals, and we held our 
anger and outrage in check. But now we see that she was hold- 
ing us off with fair promises until she could build her huge fleet 
of submarines. For when spring came she blew her promise 
into the air, just as at the beginning she had torn up that 
'scrap of paper.' Then we saw clearly that there was but one 
law for Germany, her will to rule. 

"We are fighting Germany because she violated our con- 
fidence. Paid German spies filled our cities. Officials of her 
Government, received as the guests of this nation, lived with 
us to bribe and terrorize, defying our law and the law of 
nations. 

"We are fighting Germany because while we were yet her 
friends — the only great power that still held hands off — she 
sent the Zimmermann note calling to her aid Mexico, our 
southern neighbor, and hoping to lure Japan, our western 
neighbor, into war against this nation of peace. 

GOVERNMENT THAT HAS NO CONSCIENCE. 

"The nation that would do these things proclaims the gos- 
pel that government has no conscience. And this doctrine can- 
not live, or else democracy must die! For the nations of the 
world must keep faith. There can be no living for us in a world 
where the State has no conscience, no reverence for the things 
of the spirit, no respect for international law, no mercy for 
those who fall before its force. What an unordered world! 
Anarchy ! The anarchy of the rival wolf packs ! 

"We are fighting Germany because in this war feudalism 
is making its last stand against oncoming democracy. We see 
it now. This is a war against an old spirit, an ancient, out- 
worn spirit. It is a war against feudalism — the right of the 
castle on the hill to rule the village below. It is a war of democ- 
racy — the right of all to be their own masters. Let Germany 
be feudal if she will! But she must not spread her system over 
a world that has outgrown it. Feudalism plus science, thir- 



WHY AMERICA ENTERED THE WAR. 31 

teenth century plus twentieth; this is the religion of the mis- 
taken Germany that has linked itself with the Turk; that has, 
too, adopted the method of Mahomet: 'The State has no con- 
science,' 'the State can do no wrong.' With the spirit of the 
fanatic, she believes this gospel and that it is her duty to spread 
it by force. 

"With poison gas that makes living a hell, with submarines 
that sneak through the seas to slyly murder non-combatants, 
with dirigibles that bombard men and women while they sleep, 
with a perfected system of terrorization that the modern world 
first heard of when German troops entered China, German 
feudalism is making war upon mankind. 

LIVE IN HAUNTED TERROR. 

"Let this old spirit of evil have its way and no man will 
live in America without paying toll to it, in manhood and in 
money. This spirit might demand Canada from a defeated, 
navyless England, and then our dream of peace on the north 
would be at an end. We would live, as France has lived for 
forty years, in haunting terror. 

"America speaks for the world in fighting Germany. 
Mark on a map those countries which are Germany's allies, 
and you will mark but four, running from the Baltic through 
Austria and Bulgaria to Turkey. All the other nations, the 
whole glove around, are in arms against her or are unable to 
move. There is deep meaning in this. 

"We fight with the world for an honest world, in which 
nations keep their word; for a world in which nations do not 
live by swagger or by threat; for a world in which men think 
of the ways in which they can conquer the common cruelties of 
nature instead of inventing more horrible cruelties to inflict 
upon the spirit and body of man ; for a world in which the am- 
bition or the philosophy of a few shall not make miserable all 
mankind; for a world in which the man is held more precious 
than the machine, the system or the State." 



32 WHY AMERICA ENTERED THE WAR. 

In his denunciations of the Imperial German Govern- 
ment President Wilson and his advisers have indicted the 
House of Hohenzollern, of which Emperor Wilhelm is the 
head, and which has developed the unbending military spirit 
which has resulted in Germany being counted an outcast among 
the nations of the world. 

America, it must be noted, has no antipathy for the Ger- 
mans as a race, but modern civilization opposes that form of 
Government which has permitted the cruel characteristics of 
the "wolf tribes" of feudal times to be carried down through 
the generations, and capitalized by the Imperial powers to 
bring terror to the hearts of all who do not bow to the iron hand 
of the Kaiser and his ilk. 

GERMANY A WARLIKE RACE. 

The thing from which this Prussianism — this militarism — 
grew is easily traceable down the German ages. The very 
first appearance of the Germans in history is as a warlike 
race. The earliest German literature is composed of folk tales 
about war heroes — their ideals and manly virtues. And this 
ideal in one form or another, under varying circumstances and 
conditions, persisted throughout the centuries. 

It is not merely that military service has been compulsory 
in Germany, but that almost everything else has been subju- 
gated to the development of the army. While Germany has 
given to the world a generous quota of scientists, industrial 
geniuses, musicians and poets, the whole race is imbued with 
the warlike spirit and its influence is manifest in every phase 
of national life. Practically all that is best in the nation in the 
way of efficiency has been inspired or may be traced to the 
military discipline to which the people have been subjected for 
years. They have been created human machines, trained to 
obey orders and to perform the services to which they are as- 
signed without protest and without question. 

The history of Germany began with Henry, the Fowler, 



WHY AMERICA ENTERED THE WAR. 33 

about A. D. 929, who was essentially the first sovereign. He 
developed the system of margraves or wardens to guard the 
frontiers of the kingdom, fortified his towns and required 
every ninth man to take up arms for his country. Robbers 
were forced to become soldiers or be hanged, and as lawlessness 
was rampant there was no dearth of material to fill up the 
ranks of the army. 

The margraves, or military leaders mider them, grew in 
importance and influence until the offices tended to become 
hereditary. Gradually the country was divided into princi- 
palities, each of which maintained a force of arms. This lim- 
ited form of military rule maintained for several centuries of 
troublesome times, or until about 14*12, when Emperor Sigis- 
mund appointed Bur grave Frederick, of Nuremberg, "Stratt- 
halter," or vice-regent. 

BIRTH OF THE MILITARY SPIRIT. 

This appointment marked the establishment of the Hohen- 
zollerns in Brandenburg, and, in fine, fixes the birth of the 
military spirit in Germany. 

Other princes of the German Reich maintained armies, 
but the Hohenzollerns were destined to imprint upon the na- 
tion the military ideal. In the beginning history says that 
Burgrave Frederick tried all the arts of peace, but it was only 
with the army of Franks and some artillery that he was able 
to batter down the castles of the robber lords and bring order 
into Brandenburg. 

Thomas Carlyle gives a list of twelve electors who strove 
in turn to consolidate the power of Prussia, so that when Fed- 
erick the Great became King of Prussia he found much of the 
work done. Among the rulers of these strenuous days to whom 
the Kaiser Wilhelm may point as having handed down to him 
the warlike spirit are Kurfuerst Joachim I, of Brandenburg 
(1529), who introduced Roman law and established a supreme 
court for all the provinces at Berlin; Kurfuerst Joachim II, 

H R— 3 



34 WHY AMERICA ENTERED THE WAR. 

of Brandenburg (1542), whom history describes as an un- 
scrupulous despot, fond o f luxury and display, and who 
changed his religion because it was an advantage politically for 
him to do so ; Margrave Georg Frederick von Ansbach (1564) , 
who caused the eyes of sixty peasants to be bored out upon 
winning the Peasants' war, and Kurfuerst Frederick William 
der Grosse, of Brandenburg (1652), known as the "Great 
Elector," a fighter, who had two clearly defined aims : to build 
up agriculture and maintain a big army. 

For years the Hohenzollerns and their aids were fighting 
unfriendly neighbors and quarrelsome princes, and when after 
the lapse of time the Thirty Years' War finally turned Ger- 
many into a field of blood, the Great Elector emerged from 
the strife with the support of about 25,000 well drilled soldiers, 
and freed his country from foreign foes. 

HELD EUROPE AT HIS MERCY. 

The establishment of the power of the Junkers — the auto- 
crats of Prussianism — is credited to Frederick the Great, who 
was the great drillmaster who organized the Prussian army on 
lines of efficiency and economy. It is related that Frederick, 
afterward "The Great," was taken from his women teachers 
at the age of seven years and subjected to rigid military dis- 
cipline. He commanded a company of cadets, composed of 
the sons of nobles who were compelled to drill for him, and at 
the age of fourteen he was a captain in the Potsdam Guards, 
and when, in 1740, he became king, he took the army and held 
all Europe at his mercy. His successor, Frederick William 
II, was incapable, and the French revolution found Germany 
in a state of discord. 

When Frederick William III acceded to the throne in 
1797 he started to reorganize the army. Frederick William I 
had divided the country into districts, or cantons, and here 
began the system of compulsory military training. All males 
born were enrolled and liable to service when of age. The army 



WHY AMERICA ENTERED THE WAR. 35 

[was recruited by districts and every district had its regiment, 
though later exemptions were allowed. Under Frederick Wil- 
liam III, Scharnhorst, a Hanoverian, was the military reor- 
ganize!', and he began the work with the slogan "All dwellers 
of the State are born defenders of the same." 

Instead of depending for its development on king, the 
army was directed by genius of best men developed by the 
system. After the formation of the German Empire in 1871, 
which placed the king of Prussia at its head, the Constitution 
of the German Empire made every German a member of the 
active army for seven years. Service with colors three years 
and with the reserve four. In 1875 there were eighteen army 
corps, of which twelve were Prussian. The strength by law 
in 1874 was 400,000. 

PEACE STRENGTH INCREASED. 

In 1881 the established peace strength was increased by 
thirty-four battalions of infantry, forty batteries of field artil- 
lery and other forces, and in 1886 Bismarck, recognizing the 
power of Prussianism and its military influence, was com- 
pelled to dissolve the Reichstag, but after the election in 1887 
thirty-one other battalions and twenty-four batteries were 
added. Two complete army corps were added in 1890, and in 
1893 the color service, or length of time when reservists were 
subject to duty under colors only, was decreased by two years, 
bringing the peace strength up to more than half a million and 
the reservists up to 4,000,000. Step by step the strength of 
the military force was increased until after the adoption of 
the law of 1913, when provision was made for 699 battalions of 
infantry, 633 batteries of field artillery; 44 battalions of engi- 
neers ; 55 battalions of garrison artillery ; 31 battalions of com- 
munications and 26 battalions of train troops — a grand total 
of 870,000 actually in service in peace strength. 

The German Empire is composed of twenty-six states — 
Prussia, Bavaria, Wurttemberg, Baden, Saxony, Hesse, Meek- 



36 WHY AMERICA ENTERED THE WAR. 

lenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg- Sterlitz, Oldenburg, Bruns- 
wick, Sax-Weimer-Eisnach, Sax-Coburg-Gotha, Saxe-Mein- 
ingen, Saxe-Altenburg, Waldeck, Lippe, Schaumburg-Lippe, 
Reuss (elder line), Reuss (younger line), Anhalt, Schwarz- 
Rudolsadt, Schwarzburg-Sonderhausen, Hamburg, Bremen, 
Lubeck and Reichsland — the Alsace-Lorraine. The area is 
less than that of the State of Texas while the population ac- 
cording to the most recent statistics is about 65,000,000. 

Every male person between the ages of eighteen and forty- 
five is liable for military service. Reservists under the rules 
in force when the war started were subject to two musters an- 
nually and two periods of training not to exceed eight weeks 
in duration. 

EGOTISTICAL AND EXAGGERATED UTTERANCES. 

That the present Emperor is imbued with the harsh mili- 
tary spirit of his ancestors is illustrated by his many egotistical 
and exaggerated utterances. In dedicating the monument of 
Prince Frederick Charles at Frankfurt-on-the-Oder in 1891, 
he is quoted as having said : 

"We would rather sacrifice our eighteen army corps and 
our 42,000,000 inhabitants on the field of battle than surrender 
a single stone of what my father and Prince Frederick gained." 
The thrills which such expressions arouse are born of an in- 
veterate emotional habit, and are responsible for the obliquity 
of view and conduct which has made Germany an outcast 
among civilized nations. 

But Germany was not satisfied with what she had obtained 
by her crusading. Developments of the war prove conclu- 
sively that the Kaiser has followed out the blood and iron 
politico-economic methods of Bismarck for the development of 
Prussian power and that while at times Germany has been 
reported to be maneuvering for peace, her peace moves have in 
reality been war moves, and that a truce would only give the 
Imperial Government time in which to further Prussianize and 



WHY AMERICA ENTERED THE WAR. 37 

prepare for a greater world war the territory to the southeast 
which she has conquered under the guise of a friendly alliance. 
It will be recalled that President Wilson declared that 
"America must fight until the world is made safe for democ- 
racy." This declaration refers immediately to the plans which 
it has developed Germany had for its conquest. Based upon 
reports received by agents of the United States, of England, 
of France and other countries, Germany aimed to form a con- 
solidation of an impregnable military and economic unit 
stretching from the North Sea to the Mediterranean, cutting 
Europe permanently in half, controlling the Dardanelles, the 
Agean and the Baltic, and eventually forming the backbone 
of a Prussian world empire. 

LEAGUE AT WORK SINCE 1911. 

In her southeastern conquests, it is apparent, Germany 
followed almost in toto the long established plan of the Pan- 
German League, whose propaganda had been regarded outside 
of Germany as the harmless activity of extremists, too radical 
to be taken seriously. Coupled with this plan, as an instrument 
of economic consolidation, the German officials used with only 
slight modification the system of customs union expansion 
which aided Prussia in former years to extend her domination 
over the other German States now making up the empire. 

As early as 1911 the Pan-German League is said to have 
circulated a definite propaganda of conquest, with printed ap- 
peals containing maps of a greater Germany, whose sway from 
Hamburg to Constantinople and then southeastward through 
Asiatic Turkey was marked out by boundaries very coincident 
with the military lines held today, under German officers, by 
the troops of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and Tur- 
key. Adhesion of the German Government itself to such a 
plan was not suspected by the other Powers, although the 
propagandists were permitted to continue their activities un- 
hindered and to spread their appeals in a country of strict press 



38 WHY AMERICA ENTERED THE WAR. 

supervision. How closely the German Government did ad- 
here to the plan in reality has been demonstrated clearly by 
the course of the war. 

Following the footsteps of Bismarck, who used the Fran- 
co-Prussian war alliance to bring Baden, Bavaria and Wurt- 
temburg into the German confederacy and then into the Ger- 
man Empire, Emperor William chose war as the means of 
establishing the broad pathway to the southeast which was 
essential for realization of the dream of a great Germany. 

VERGE OF DISSOLUTION. 

The subjugation of Austria-Hungary, which would have 
presented a different task under ordinary conditions, became in 
these circumstances comparatively very simple. A polyglot 
combination of States, having little in common and apparently 
held together only by the decaying genius of the aged Em- 
peror Franz Joseph, the dual monarchy was regarded every- 
where as on the verge of dissolution. Her helplessness before 
Russia's army became apparent early in the war, and the eager- 
ness with which Germany seized the opportunity thus pre- 
sented is pointed to as emphasizing the far-sightedness of 
the German plans. 

Austria-Hungary's submission is declared to be complete, 
both in a military and economic sense. The German officers 
commanding her armies, abetted by industrial agents, scattered 
throughout the country by Germany, hold the Austrian and 
Hungarian population in a union which neither the hardships 
of war, the death of the Emperor nor the inspiration of the out- 
side influences, such as the Russian revolution, can break. 

Bulgaria's declaration of war on the side of Germany was 
actuated by a German diplomatic coup, which in itself is re- 
garded now as further evidence that a clear road through to 
the Dardanelles was considered in Berlin as a primary and im- 
perative purpose of the war. 

In the case of Turkey, German domination is even more 



WHY AMERICA ENTERED THE WAR. 39 

complete than in Austria- Hungary and Bulgaria. Not only- 
have German officers led in defending Turkish territory and 
in eradicating inharmonious elements, such as the Armenians 
and Syrians, but German industrial organizations have taken a 
firm grip on Turkish industry and a large delegation of Ger- 
man professors have been spreading German kultur among the 
population. 

The developments threw a new light on many events be- 
fore the war. Among them the long-unexplained declaration 
of Emperor William at Damascus in 1898 that all Mohamme- 
dans might confidently regard the German Emperor as "their 
friend forever." There also is a complete understanding now 
of Germany's eagerness to obtain, in 1899, a concession for the 
Bagdad railroad, an artery of communication now indispens- 
able to the German operations. 

These are the things and conditions to which the Allies- 
referred when in replying to one of President Wilson's peace 
notes they declared that war must accomplish the "liberation of 
Italians, of Slavs, of Rumanians and of Tzecho-Slovacs from 
foreign domination; the enfranchisement of populations sub- 
ject to the bloody tyranny of the Turk; the expulsion from 
Europe of the Ottoman Empire, and the restoration of Servia, 
Montenegro and Rumania." 

America entered the war to fight for Democracy. On the 
surface the United States pledged itself to protect its ships and 
make secure the lives of its citizens on the highways of the 
world, but the principles for which the manhood of the coun- 
try were called to fight have been summarized as follows : 

That the nations of the world shall co-operate and not 
compete. The paradox of history is that every struggle leads 
to firmer unity. Wars cemented France, unified the British 
Empire, consolidated the American Union. 

That national armaments be limited to purposes of inter- 
nal police, no nation be allowed to have a force sufficient to be 



40 WHY AMERICA ENTERED THE WAR. 

a menace to general peace, and a League of Peace be formed 
which shall have at its hand sufficient armed power to compel 
order among the States. 

That nations be governed by the people that compose 
them, and for the benefit of those people, and not of a ruling 
class. 

That every nation be governed with an eye to the welfare 
of the whole world as well as to its own prosperity or glory, 
and patriotism properly subjected to humanity. 

That the power of government be dissociated from ad- 
vancing the profits of capital, and made always to mean the 
welfare of labor. 

That security of life, freedom of worship and opinion, and 
liberty of movement be assured to all men everywhere. 

That no munitions or instruments of death be manufac- 
tured except under control of the International Council of 
the World. 

That the seas be free to all. 

That tariffs be adjusted with a view to the general welfare 
and not as measures of national rivalry. 

That railways, telegraph, and telephone lines, and all 
other common and necessary means of intercommunication be 
eventually nationalized. 

That every human being in a country be conscripted to 
devote a certain part of his or her life to national service. 

That both labor unions and combinations of capital be 
under strict government control, so that no irresponsible group 
may conspire against the commonwealth. 

That every child receive training to equip him or her for 
self-support and intelligent citizenship. 

That woman shall enjoy every right of citizenship. 

That the civil shall always have precedence over the mili- 
tary authority. 

And that the right of free speech, of a free press, and of 
assembly shall remain inviolate. 



CHAPTER III. 

THE THINGS THAT MADE MEN MAD. 

Germany's Barbarity — The Devastation of Belgium — Human Fiends — Fire- 
brand AND TOBCH — BABE AND FlLLAGE THE SACKING OF LOUVAIN — WANTON 

Destruction — Official Froof. 

THE conduct of Germany in ignoring international treaties 
and invading Belgium first aroused the antagonism of 
the United States and the rest of the civilized world, and 
furnished the primary glimpse of how Imperialism made light 
of human rights. What the Kaiser and his arrogant followers 
did is fully set forth in the report which a special envoy, ap- 
pointed by King Albert of Belgum, laid before President Wil- 
son on September 16, 1914. 

The mission consisted of Henry Carton de Wiart, Min- 
ister of Justice; Messrs. de Sadeleer, Hymans and Vander- 
velde, Ministers of State, and Count Louis de Lichtervelde, 
serving as secretary of the mission. On being received by 
President Wilson, Mr. de Wiart, for the mission, outlined for 
the world and for America, the situation in part as follows : 

"His Majesty, the King of the Belgians, has charged us 
with a special mission to the President of the United States. 
Let me say how much we feel ourselves honored to have been 
called upon to express the sentiments of our King and of our 
whole nation to the illustrious statesman whom the American 
people have called to the highest dignity of the commonwealth. 

"Ever since her independence was first established, Bel- 
gium has been declared neutral in perpetuity. This neutrality, 
guaranteed by the Powers, has recently been violated by one 
of them. Had we consented to abandon our neutrality for the 
benefit of one of the belligerents, we would have betrayed our 
obligations toward the others. And it was the sense of our 
international obligations as well as that of our dignity and 
honor that has driven us to resistance. 

4X 



42 THE THINGS THAT MADE MEN MAD. 

"The consequences suffered by the Belgian nation were 
not confined purely to the harm occasioned by the forced march 
of the invading army. This army not only seized a great por- 
tion of our territory, but it committed incredible acts of vio- 
lence, the nature of which is contrary to the laws of nations. 

"Peaceful inhabitants were massacred, defenseless women 
and children were outraged ; open and undefended towns were 
destroyed ; historical and religious monuments were reduced to 
dust and the famous library of the University of Louvain was 
given to the flames. 

"Our government has appointed a Judicial Commission to 
make an official investigation, so as to thoroughly and impar- 
tially examine the facts and to determine the responsibility 
thereof, and I will have the honor, Exellency, to hand over to 
you the proceedings of the inquiry. 

THE UNITED STATES' ATTITUDE. 

"In this frightful holocaust which is sweeping over 
Europe, the United States has adopted a neutral attitude. 

"And it is for this reason that your country, standing 
apart from either one of the belligerents, is in the best position 
to judge, without bias or partiality, the conditions under which 
the war is being waged. 

"It is at the request, even at the initiative of the United 
States, that all civilized nations have formulated and adopted 
at the Hague a law regulating the laws and usages of war. 

"We refuse to believe that war has abolished the family 
of civilized powers, or the regulation to which they have freely 
consented. 

"The American people has always displayed its respect 
for justice, its search for progress and an instinctive attach- 
ment for the laws of humanity. Therefore, it has won a moral 
influence which is recognized by the entire world, lit is for this 
reason that Belgium, bound as she is to you by ties of commerce 
and increasing friendship, turns to the American people at this 



THE THINGS THAT MADE MEN MAD. 43 

time to let you know the real truth of the present situation. 
Resolved to continue unflinching defence of its sovereignty and 
independence, it deems it a duty to bring to the attention of 
the civilized world the innumerable grave breaches of rights of 
mankind, of which she has been a victim. 

"At the very moment we were leaving Belgium, the King 
recalled to us his trip to the United States and the vivid and 
strong impression your powerful and virile civilization left 
upon his mind. Our faith in your fairness, our confidence in 
your justice, in your spirit of generosity and sympathy, all 
these have dictated our present mission." 

THE INVESTIGATING COMMITTEE. 

In the report handed to President Wilson, the preface sets 
forth that the committee appointed to investigate the conduct 
of the German invaders, and all of the surrounding circum- 
stances, consisted of Messrs. Cattier, professor at the Brussels 
University; Nys, counselor of the Brussels Court of Appeals; 
Verhaegen, counselor of the Brussels Court of Appeals; 
Wodon, professor at the Brussels University; Secretary, Mr. 
Gillard, Director of the Department of Justice. Afterwards, 
when the invasion made it necessary to transfer the seat of the 
government from Brussels to Antwerp, a sub-committee was 
appointed there, consisting of Mr. Cooreman, Minister of 
State; Members, Count Goblet d'Aviella, Minister of State, 
Vice President of the Senate; Messrs. Ryckmans, Senator; 
Strauss, Alderman of the City of Antwerp ; Van Cutsem, Hon- 
orary President of the Law Court of Antwerp. Secretaries, 
Chevalier Ernst de Bunswyck, Chief Secretary of the Belgian 
Minister of Justice ; Mr. Orts, Counselor of the Legation. 

In brief the report submits first, that in violation of the 
perpetual treaty of June 26, 1831, Germany notified Belgium 
that France was about to march upon Germany, and that Ger- 
many proposed to frustrate such a move by sending its soldiers 
through Belgium; that the German government had no inten- 



44 THE THINGS THAT MADE MEN MAD. 

tion of making war against Belgium, and that if Belgium made 
no opposition it would evacuate Belgium after hostilities 
ceased, and during the period the German forces were in the 
country, would buy every tiling needed for its army. Belgium 
replied that it had assurance from France that France had no 
intention of invading Belgium, and that if France attempted 
to pass through Belgium would oppose such an act with force. 
It informed the German Imperial Government that it would 
similarly oppose any move on the part of Germany to pass 
through. 

Nevertheless Germany proceeded at once through Bel- 
gium. Quoting articles from the Hague treaty, the commis- 
sion's report reads: 

THE DAYS OF BABARISM. 

"In the days of barbarism, the population of a territory 
occupied by the enemy was deprived of all judicial capacity. 
At that time," as Ghering writes ironically, " 'the enemy was 
absolutely deprived of rights; everything he owned belonged 
to the gallant warrior who had wrenched it away from him. 
One had merely to lose it.' 

"In our days the rules of warfare clearly establish the dif- 
ference between the property of the government of the terri- 
tory occupied and the property of individuals. While the pres- 
ent doctrine allows the conqueror to seize, in a general way, 
everything in the way of movable property belonging to the 
State, it obliges him, on the other hand, to respect the property 
of individuals, corporations and public provincial administra- 
tions. 

"The Hague Convention, signed October 18, 1897, by all 
the civilized States, among others by Germany, contains the 
following stipulations regarding laws and customs of warfare 
on land: 

" 'Art. 46. The honor and right of the family, the life of 
the individual and private property, as well as religious con- 



THE THINGS THAT MADE MEN MAD. 45 

victions and the exercise of worship, must be respected. Pri- 
vate property cannot be confiscated. 

" 'Art. 47. Pillaging is formally prohibited. 

" 'Art. 53. When occupying territory, the army can only 
seize cash as well as funds and securities belonging entirely to 
the State ; also depots of arms, ways and means of transporta- 
tion, warehouses and provisions, and in a general way all mov- 
able property belonging to the State and liable to be used for 
warlike operations. 

" 'Art. 56. Property of municipalities, property of estab- 
lishments consecrated to worship, to charity and instruction; 
to art and science, even though belonging to the State, will be 
treated as private property.' 

"In defiance of these conventional rules, voluntarily and 
solemnly accepted by Germany, she has committed, from the 
beginning of her invasion of Belgian soil, numerous attacks 
upon private property." 

GERMAN CUPIDITY. 

At Hasselt, the report shows that on August 12, 1914, 
the Germans confiscated the funds of the branch of the Na- 
tional Bank, which amounted to 2,075,000 francs. At Liege, 
on entering the city, they forcibly seized the funds of a branch 
of the same bank, amounting to 4,000,000 francs. Moreover, 
upon finding at that branch bundles of bank notes of 5-franc 
denomination, representing an amount of 400,000 francs, and 
which were not yet signed, they forced a printer to sign those 
bank notes by means of a rubber stamp, which they had also 
seized, and afterwards put the notes in circulation. The bank, 
it is explained, was a shareholders' corporation, the capital 
having been obtained by subscription from private parties and 
was in no wise an institution of the State. 

The enormity of this offence is made apparent by the fact 
that in the war of 1870, when the Prussians entered Rhiems in 
the Franco-Prussian war, and they wanted to confiscate the 



46 THE THINGS THAT MADE MEN MAD. 

funds of the branch of the National Bank of France, Crown 
Prince Frederick ordered that funds which were found at the 
bank could not be seized so long as they were not used for the 
maintenance of the French army, it having been contended by 
directors of the institution that the bank was not a State, but a 
private bank. But more than this Germany levied supplies 
from every Belgian city and tried to levy upon the city of 
Brussels the sum of 50,000,000 francs and the province of Bra- 
bant 450,000,000 francs. 

TREATY OBLIGATIONS. 

Categorically, the violation and disregard of every phase 
of the Hague treaty is described. In spite of the strict pro- 
vision that undefended cities, villages and dwellings are not to 
be bombarded, and where bombardment is necessary the com- 
manding officer of the attacking party must warn the authori- 
ties that such bombardment is to take place, German aero- 
planes and dirigibles bombarded relentlessly from the begin- 
ning. In Antwerp a Zeppelin threw explosive bombs at the 
Royal Palace, but the missiles went astray, demolishing private 
residences, killing eight persons and injuring many. Servants 
were killed in their beds in one private house when the bombs 
tore away the top of the building. 

"In the Place du Poids Public a bomb fell on the pave- 
ment. Fragments scattered all over the place. Not a house 
facing the square was untouched. A policeman was cut to 
pieces, all that was found of him being a leg covered with a few 
rags of his uniform. Five other persons who opened their 
windows were blown to atoms. The bed-rooms of two houses 
facing one another were visited. In the first there were three 
corpses. Blood was scattered all over the place. The floor 
was covered with fragments of windows and with blood-soaked 
underwear. On the ceiling and walls, parts of intestines and 
brains were visible. In the other house two old persons had 
been killed while looking down upon the street. Later Ant- 



THE THINGS THAT MADE MEN MAD. 47 

werp was bombarded, as was Heyst-op-den-Berg and the city 
of Malines, which was undefended, and where there was not 
a Belgian soldier. At Malines the batteries fired shell after 
shell in the direction of the Cathedral of Saint Rombault, a 
beautiful edifice, which was hit many times and badly damaged, 
though there was no military reason for the assault as the town 
was practically abandoned. 

The commission turned over to President Wilson explos- 
ive bullets used by the Germans at Werchter, and submitted 
briefs from physicians who treated wounds made by the ex- 
plosive bullets. 

DETAILED ATROCITIES OUTLINED. 

A few details of the atrocities are outlined as follows: 

"German cavalry, occupying the village of Linsmeau, 
were attacked by some Belgian infantry and two Gendarmes. 
A German officer was killed by our troops during the fight, 
and subsequently buried at the request of the Belgian officer 
in command. 'None of the civilian population took part in the 
fight. Nevertheless, the village was invaded at dusk on Au- 
gust 10 by a strong force of German cavalry, artillery and 
machine guns. In spite of the assurance given by the Burgo- 
master that none of the peasants had taken part in the previous 
fighting two farms and six outlying houses were destroyed by 
gun-fire and burned. All the male population were compelled 
to come forward and hand over what they possessed. No re- 
cently discharged firearms were found, but the invaders divided 
the peasants into three groups. Those in one group were 
bound and eleven of them placed in a ditch, whither they were 
afterward found dead, their skulls fractured by the butts of 
German rifles. 

"During the night of August 10, German cavalry entered 
Velm in great numbers ; the inhabitants were asleep. The Ger- 
mans, without provocation, fired upon Mr. Deglimme-Gever's 
house, broke into it, destroyed furniture, looted money, burned 



48 THE THlJNttS THAT MAHE MKN MAi). 

barns, hay, corn stacks, farm implements, six oxen, and the 
contents of the farmyard. They earned off Mme. Deglimme 
half -naked, to a place two miles away. She was then let go 
and was fired upon as she fled, without being hit. Her hus- 
band was carried away in another direction." 

Farmer Jeff Dierckx, of Neerhespen, bears witness to the 
following acts of cruelty committed by German cavalry at 
Orsmael Neerhespen, on August 10, 11 and 12: 

SHOCKING BARBARITIES. 

"An old man of the latter village had his arm sliced in 
three longitudinal cuts; he was then hanged head downward 
and burned alive. Young girls have been raped and little chil- 
dren outraged at Orsmael, where several inhabitants suffered 
mutilations too horrible to describe. A Belgian soldier belong- 
ing to a battalion of cyclist carbineers who had been wounded 
and made prisoner was hanged, while another who was tend- 
ing his comrade was bound to a telegraph pole and shot." 

The sacking of Louvain, which was one of the vile acts of 
the Germans during the early days of the war, is described 
briefly in the report of the commission as follows : 

"The Germans entered Louvain on Wednesday, August 
19, after having set fire to the towns through which they 
passed. 

"From the moment of their having entered the city of 
Louvain, the Germans requisitioned lodgings and victuals for 
their troops. They entered every private bank of the city and 
took over the bank funds. German soldiers broke the doors 
of houses abandoned by their inhabitants, pillaged them and 
indulged in orgies. 

"The German authorities took hostages ; the mayor of the 
city, Senator Vander Kelen, the Vice Rector of the Catholic 
University, the Dean of the City; magistrates and aldermen 
were also detained. All arms down to fencing foils had been 



THE THINGS THAT MADE MEN MAD. 49 

handed over to the town administration and deposited by the 
said authorities in the Church of St. Peter. 

"In the neighboring village, Corbeck-Loo, a young ma- 
tron, 22 years old, whose husband was in the army, was sur- 
prised on Wednesday, August 19, with several of her relatives, 
by a band of German soldiers. The persons who accompanied 
her were locked in an abandoned house, while she was taken 
into another house, where she was successively violated by five 
soldiers. 

LUSTFUL CRUELTY OF THE GERMANS. 

"In the same village, on Thursday, August 20, German 
soldiers were searching a house where a young girl of 16 lived 
with her parents. They carried her into an abandoned house 
and, while some of them kept the father and mother off, others 
went into the house, the cellar of which was open, and forced 
the young woman to drink. Afterwards they carried her out 
on the lawn in front of the house and violated her successively. 
She continued to resist and they pierced her breast with bay- 
onets. Having been abandoned by the soldiers after their 
abominable attacks, the girl was carried off by her parents, and 
the following day, owing to the gravity of her condition, she 
was administered the last rites of the church by the priest of 
the parish and carried to the hospital at Louvain." 

Upon entering villages occupied by the Germans after 
they were driven back to Louvain, the report says the Belgian 
soldiers found that the German soldiers had sacked, ravaged 
and set fire to the villages everywhere, taking with them and 
driving before them all the male inhabitants. "Upon entering 
Hofstade, the Belgian soldiers found the corpse of an old 
woman who had been killed by bayonet thrusts ; she still held 
in her hand the needle with which she was sewing when at- 
tacked ; one mother and her son, aged about 15 years, lay there 
pierced with bayonet wounds ; one man was found hung. 

"In Sempst, a neighboring village, were found corpses 

H R— 4 



50 THE THINGS THAT MADE MEN MAD. 

of two men partially burned. One of them was found with legs 
cut off to the knees ; the other was minus his arms and legs. A 
workman had been pierced with bayonets, afterward while he 
was still living the Germans soaked him with petroleum and 
locked him in a house which they set on fire. An old man and 
his son had been killed by sabre cuts ; a cyclist had been killed 
by bullets ; a woman coming out of her house had been stricken 
down in the same manner." 

A LAME EXCUSE OFFERED. 

Concerning the sacking of Louvain itself, the report says 
that one detachment of the Germans met another detachment 
while in full flight from the Belgian soldiers, and attacked one 
another. This was the basis for the pretext that they had been 
attacked by the citizenry of Louvain and was responsible for 
the bombardment of the city. The bombarding lasted until 10 
o'clock at night, and afterward the German soldiers set fire to 
the city. 

"The houses which had not taken fire were entered by 
German soldiers, who were throwing fire grenades, some of 
which seem to have been provided for the occasion. The larg- 
est part of the city of Louvain, especially the quarters of 'Ville 
Haute,' comprising the modern houses, the Cathedral of St. 
Peter, the University Halls, with the whole library of the Uni- 
versity with its manuscripts, its collections, the largest part of 
the scientific institutions and the town theatre were at the mo- 
ment being consumed by flames. 

"The commission deems it necessary, in the midst of these 
horrors, to insist on the crime of lese-humanity which the de- 
liberate annihilation of an academic library — a library which 
was one of the treasures of our time — constitutes. 

"Numerous corpses of civilians covered the streets and 
squares. On the routes from Louvain to Tirlemont alone one 
witness testifies to having seen more than fifty of them. On 
the threshold of houses were found burnt corpses of people, 



THE THINGS THAT MADE MEN MAD. 51 

who, surprised in their cellars by the fire, had tried to escape 
and fell into the heap of live embers. The suburbs of Louvain 
were given up to the same fate. It can be said that the whole 
region between Malines and Louvain and most of the suburbs 
of Louvain have been devastated and destroyed. 

BASE INDIGNITIES TO CLERGYMEN. 

"A group of 75 persons, among whom were several not- 
ables of the city, such as Father Coloboet and a Spanish priest, 
and also an American priest, were conducted, during the morn- 
ing of Wednesday, August 26, to the square in front of the 
station. The men were brutally separated from their wives 
and children, after having received the most abominable treat- 
ment after repeated threats of being shot, and were driven in 
front of the German troops as far as the village of Campen- 
hout. They were locked, during the night, in the church. The 
following day, at 4 o'clock, a German officer came to tell them 
that they might all confess themselves and that they would be 
shot half an hour later. When, finally, they were released, the 
report continues, they were recaptured by another German bri- 
gade and compelled to march to Malines, where they were 
finally liberated. 

"An eye witness testified that he met nothing except 
burned villages, crazed peasants, lifting to each comer their 
arms, as mark of submission. From each house was hanging a 
white flag, even from those that had been set on fire, and rags 
of them were found hanging from the ruins. The fire began 
a little above the American College, and the city is entirely 
destroyed, with the exception of the town hall and the depot. 
Today the fire continues and the Germans, instead of trying 
to stop it — seem rather to maintain it by throwing straw into 
the flames, as I have myself seen behind the Hotel de Ville. 
The Cathedral and the theatre have been destroyed and fallen 
in, and also the library. The town resembles an old city in 
ruins, in the midst of which drunken soldiers are circulating, 



52 THE THINGS THAT MADE MEN MAD. 

carrying around bottles of wine and liquor; the officers them- 
selves being installed in arm chairs, sitting around tables and 
drinking like their own men. 

"In the streets dead horses are decaying, horses which are 
completely inflated, and the smell of the fire and the decaying 
animals is such that it has followed me for a long time." 

And the policy which developed such outrageous conduct 
on the part of the Kaiser's soldiers in the early days of the war, 
against which Belgium protested to the world, inspired brutal 
acts, ruthlessness and cruelty at every stage and during every 
period of the war. Nowhere is there written a single line which 
tells of the humanitarian acts of the German soldiers. Those 
who fight against them acknowledge their stoical bravery, the 
efficiency of the army, the navy and the people as a whole, but 
there is no reflection of refined instincts in any of the acts of 
Germany or the Germans. 

THE AMERICAN MINISTER'S REPORT. 

Of »those conditions which existed in Belgium when the 
German soldiers overran the country, America's own minister 
to the devastated country, Brand Whitlock, sent a report to 
the State Department in the beginning of 1917, when Presi- 
dent Wilson was protesting against the treatment accorded the 
helpless people of Belgium by the Germans. 

Mr. Whitlock tells how the Germans determined to put 
the Belgians thrown out of employment to work for them. "In 
August," says the report, dealing with the treatment of the 
helpless Belgians, "Von Hindenburg was appointed supreme 
commander. He is said to have criticised Von Bissing's policy 
as too mild, and there was a quarrel ; Von Bissing went to Ber- 
lin to protest, threatened to resign, but did not. He returned, 
and a German official said that Belgium would now be sub- 
jected to a more terrible regime, would learn what war was. 
The prophecy has been vindicated. 

"The deportations began in October in the Etape, at 



THE THINGS THAT MADE MEN MAD. 53 

Ghent and at Bruges. The policy spread; the rich industrial 
districts at Hainaut, the mines and steel works about Charleroi 
were next attacked, and they seized men in Brabant, even in 
Brussels, despite some indications and even predictions of the 
civil authorities that the policy was about to be abandoned. 

"As by one of the ironies of life the winter has been more 
excessively cold than Belgium has ever known it and while 
many of those who presented themselves were adequately pro- 
tected against the cold, many of them were without overcoats. 
The men, shivering from cold and fear, the parting from weep- 
ing wives and children, the barrels of brutal Uhlans, all this 
made the scene a pitiable and distressing one. 

RAGE, TERROR AND DESPAIR. 

"The rage, the terror and despair excited by this measure 
all over Belgium were beyond anything we had witnessed since 
the day the Germans poured into Brussels. The delegates of 
the commission for relief in Belgium, returning to Brussels, 
told the most distressing stories of the scenes of cruelty and 
sorrow attending the seizures. And daily, hourly almost, since 
that time, appalling stories have been related by Belgians com- 
ing to the legation. It is impossible for us to verify them, first 
because it is necessary for us to exercise all possible tact in 
dealing with the subject at all, and secondly because there is 
no means of communication between the Occupations Gebiet 
and the Etappey Gebiet. 

"I am constantly in receipt of reports from all over Bel- 
gium that tend to bear the stories one constantly hears of bru- 
tality and cruelty. A number of men sent back to Mons are 
said to be in a dying condition, many of them tubercular. At 
Molines and at Antwerp returned men have died, their friends 
asserting that they have been victims of neglect and cruelty, of 
cold, of exposure, of hunger. 

"I have had requests from the burgomasters of ten com- 
munes asking that permission be obtained to send to the de- 



54 THE THINGS THAT MADE MEN MAD. 

ported men in Germany packages of food similar to those that 
are being sent to prisoners of war. Thus far the German au- 
thorities have refused to permit this except in special instances, 
and returning Belgians claim that even when such packages 
are received they are used by the camp authorities only as an- 
other means of coercing them to sign the agreements to work. 

A MORTAL BLOW TO BELGIANS. 

"By the deportation of Belgians to work in Germany," 
says Mr. Whitlock's report, "they have dealt a mortal blow to 
any prospect they may ever have had of being tolerated by the 
population of Flanders; in tearing away from nearly every 
humble home in the land a husband and a father or a son and 
brother; they have lighted a fire of hatred that will never go 
out; they have brought home to every heart in the land, in a 
way that will impress its horror indelibly on the memory of 
three generations, a realization of what German methods mean, 
not as with the early atrocities in the heat of passion and the 
first lust of war, but by one of those deeds that make one de- 
spair of the future of the human race, a deed coldly planned, 
studiously matured, and deliberately and systematically exe- 
cuted, a deed so cruel that German soldiers are said to have 
wept in its execution, and so monstrous that even German offi- 
cers are now said to be ashamed." 

And if these acts were not sufficient to convince the world 
that Germany "is without the pale" so far as civilized warfare 
is concerned her conduct in wantonly destroying property in 
Flanders while in retreat could permit of no other conclusion. 

After the violation of Belgium and the destruction of the 
Lusitania and the adoption of the policy of sinking neutral 
ships on sight for military advantage, or "necessity," why 
shouldn't the soldiers pollute wells, kill trees, carry off the 
girls, smash the household furniture not worth taking away 
and smear the pictures on the wall, just for revenge or in the 
sheer lust of destruction? 



THE THINGS THAT MADE MEN MAD. 55 

It makes no difference, so far as the principles of human- 
ity are concerned, whether the German army is in. victory or 
suffering defeat, advancing or retreating. The treatment ac- 
corded the evacuated cities of the Somme district was foretold 
by the treatment of the cities occupied early in the war. Here 
is the wording of an order posted during the victorious invasion 
of Belgium: 

"Order — To the people of Liege. The population of An- 
denne, after making a display of peaceful intentions toward 
our troops, attacked them in the most treacherous manner. 
With my authority the general commanding these troops has 
reduced the town to ashes and has had 110 persons shot. I 
bring this fact to the knowledge of the people of Liege in order 
that they may know what fate to expect should they adopt a 
similar attitude. 

"GENERAL von BULOW. 

"Liege, Aug. 22, 1914." 

CRUEL EXTREME OF PUNISHMENT. 

And yet this order showed only a cruel extreme of pun- 
ishment where some punishment was to be expected. It was 
left for the retreating Germans of 1917 to destroy, without 
provocation and without purpose, motived by revenge and ob- 
sessed by the Nietschean doctrine of "spare not." 

Before Baupaume was evacuated it was deliberately con- 
verted into a mass of muck. There is no Bapaume now. It is 
perfectly understandable that the retreating soldiers should 
destroy their trenches and. put up the question, "Tommy, how 
do you like your new trenches?" But why smear filth over 
the photograph of three little girls, a family treasure? All 
around Bapaume the villages were looted and the night the 
deliverers entered the destroyers made the sky lurid with the 
fires of towns and hamlets. Some 800 in the evacuated region 
were burned. 

At Nesle, Roye and Ham there was not time enough to 



56 THE THINGS THAT MADE MEN MAD. 

destroy everything. The house of a doctor at Nesle, a spe- 
cially attractive home, was not blown down for strategic pur- 
poses, but some soldiers did find time to drive axes through the 
mahogany panels of the beds and smash the clocks and mirrors. 
They were angry at being compelled to leave the house. 

Villages like Cressy, near Nesle, where a shell never fell 
in the course of the war, have been completely destroyed. 

PERONNE A HOPELESS RUIN. 

There is not a habitable house left in Peronne. The six- 
teenth century church of St. Jean is but a relic. W. Beach 
Thomas wrote after the retreat that nothing was left that was 
valuable enough to be worth collection by a penny tinker or a 
rag-and-bone merchant. Foul what you cannot have, was the 
motto. 

The famous ruins of the Feudal Castle of Coucy, one of 
the finest relics of architecture of its period, was wantonly 
blown up by the Germans on retreat. It was built in the thir- 
teenth century by Enguerrand III and passed to the French 
crown in 1498, and was one of the great historic landmarks of 
Northern France. 

Coucy was one of the noblest relics of the Middle Ages, 
respected by the most barbarous wars of the past, whose don- 
jon (greatest in all Europe) dates almost from Charlemagne, 
harmless, time-wrecked, illustrious Coucy! 

To give an idea of Coucy's importance, the French, in 
their first astonishment and sorrow, proposed to make reprisals 
on Hindenburg, should it take ten years. Of course, they 
will not ; it is not their way. 

Coucy is a mountain of blasted stones. Shoun Kelly, 
American, owned one of the outer towers of the great castle 
and the story of its ownership is the American antithesis of 
German ravage. Americans were always faithful tourists to 
Coucy; but among them, one loved more than all the glorious 
old ruin and its story which began with Enguerrand, the Sire 






THE THINGS THAT MADE MEN MAD. 57 

of Coucy, in the year 1210. This was the late Edmund Kelly, 
of New York and Paris, international lawyer and for many 
years counsel of the American Embassy in Paris. He medi- 
tated on the motto of old Enguerrand: "I am not king, nor 
prince, nor duke, nor even count: I am the Sire of Coucy!" In 
fact, the Sire made a record for standing off local kings. 

"He was a good American ahead of his time," said Law- 
yer Kelly; and he took to reading up the ancient chronicles, 
how Enguerrand's descendants stood off royalty for some 200 
years, until finally bought out by the wealthy Louis of Orleans, 
and all the later glories of the place. Mazarin dismantled 
Coucy, but left it standing in its beauty ; and Lawyer Kelly dis- 
covered it to be a State museum, impossible to be purchased, in 
these latter days, even by a millionaire. Not being one, he 
preferred it so, loving Coucy more than ever, the cultured 
American did the next best thing. 

A LITTLE TOWN REDUCED. 

The little town, once so rich, had dwindled since Mazarin. 
On the castle side stood two massive towers of the inner de- 
fense, belonging to the town. Mr. Kelly asked Mayor and 
department legislature to make a price on the nearest. As soon 
as he had bought his tower, he used loving care restoring it. 
He pierced windows through walls 16 feet thick. He built 
rooms in three stories, furnishing them in massive antique style. 
The tower roof was his shady terrace, covered with a little 
grove of century-old trees ! From it he dominated Coucy. All 
its soul of beauty lay beneath his view. 

All was systematically blown up, the town, the towers, the 
castle, by retreating Germans in their rage. Just masses of 
crumbled stones. The German papers boast that it took 28 
tons of high explosives, and any one can see, this hour, the 
plain of Coucy covered with a white layer of powdered lime- 
stone, for miles around. 

What for? To clear a battlefield, they say. It is not true. 



58 THE THINGS THAT MADE MEN MAD. 

Nothing is cleared. The masses of crumbled stone remained, 
when they fled their "battlefield." 

The donjon was very high. It stood on a kind of bluff 
or elevation, overlooking the country, and before the days of 
aeroplanes it might have been used for observation. The don- 
jon walls were 16 yards thick, not feet, but yards! No other * 
tower in Europe had those dimensions. They tell a story about 
Mazarin. He deemed so strong a place, so near to Paris, might 
be dangerous to the Crown ; so he dismantled Coucy militarily, 
without destroying its architectural beauty. The donjon wor- 
ried him in those days when artillery could make no impression 
on its massive thickness. So Mazarin put 16 barrels of powder 
inside the tower, and set them off. The tower just converted 
itself into gun barrel ! The powder blew out all the stories and 
the roof — shot them up like a gun pointed at the sky! But 
the tower stood, exactly as before. 

OF MASSIVE ARCHITECTURE. 

The masonrjr was admittedly the heaviest achieved by the 
Middle Ages. From the donjon extended three great vaulted 
halls. Massive buildings continued. There was a Gothic 
chapel, a Tribunal Hall, the Hall of the Nine Peers (whose 
statues remained), the Hall of the Nine Countesses (whose 
medallion-portraits were carved on the monumental chimney) . 
There was a Romanesque chapel (relic from Charlemagne, like 
the original donjon), the separate Fortified Chateau of the 
Chatelain (the Sire's First Officer) , and so on, and so on. 

The retreating Germans have not only blown up Coucy, 
but that other priceless relic, the Tower of the Grand Constable 
and the entire historic Chateau of Ham, and equally the Castle 
of Peronne, a jewel of beauty — all in one corner of the Val- 
lois ! On the smoking wreck of Peronne, they left a humorous 
placard : 

"Nicht aergen! Tur wundern! Don't be angry, just 
wonder!" Noyon and Peronne are sacked and ruined. At 



THE THINGS THAT MADE MEN MAD. 59 

Chaimy 1800 houses out of 2500 were deliberately burned, and 
at a distance they bombarded the remainder, full of old folks 
and children whom they had parked there. All the public 
buildings, churches, hospitals and poorhouse were blown up. 
Three hundred towns and villages were burning at one time in 
this small section of the Cradel of France. Hindenburg was 
at Koisel when they rounded up the populations, went through 
their pockets for their money (giving "receipts"), took their 
clothes off their backs (so that all the American relief agencies 
in Paris were overwhelmed with telegrams of appeal) and 
burgled all the safes in banks and business houses before set- 
ting fire to the town and blowing up the main street ! 

ACCORDING TO THE PRINCIPLE OF WAR. 

The German official communique said that it was "all done 
uniquely according to the technical principles of modern war." 
At Berlin they caused an American correspondent to cable 
these words to his papers : "The enemy will find great difficulty 
to take shelter on a battlefield where everything has been com- 
pletely razed. We regret the destruction of a beautiful region 
of France, but it was necessary to transform it into a clear field 
of battle before we quit it." 

They blew up the precious Romanesque Church of Tracy- 
le-Val (which dates before the Gothic). The church was sit- 
uated in the midst of the great forest of Laigue ; they blew up 
the church — and left the forest standing! No battlefield was 
cleared, but they hacked the bark to kill great noble trees bj 
thousands. They made no effort to clear the forest ; but weep- 
ing old French peasants told how half a German regiment was 
occupied three days in barking trees to prevent the sap from 
mounting. The crushed pearl of architecture lies in a dying 
forest. 

At Le Novion, torch in hand, they burned 223 houses ; but 
all the gutted walls are standing. 

What technical principles of war command the wholesale 



60 THE THINGS THAT MADE MEN MAD. 

destruction of young fruit trees? In 20 orchards, by count, 
in sweet Leury (hidden at the bottom of a valley) every peach, 
plum, apricot and pear tree has been assassinated — hacked and 
standing, when the trunks are thick, and sprawling, severed by 
one blow of a sharp hatchet, young trees from the thickness of 
your wrists to your thumb. The French, with loving care, 
trained peach and pear trees against sunny walls, as if they 
were grapevines. The slender trunks are cut — and the garden 
walls left standing. 

DESECRATION OF TREES. 

The soldiers spared neither the orchards nor the single 
trees that took a generation to grow, and would have borne 
fruit for generations to come. Reapers and binders and other 
farming machines were collected and broken to pieces. One 
might see a measure of advantage that the deliverers would 
gain from these things if not destroyed, but it is an awful war 
doctrine that refuses to discriminate between the immediate and 
the eventual, the direct and the indirect, the important and the 
negligible advantage that would impoverish posterity to get a 
dime in cash. No military advantage is sufficient motive for 
such wanton ravishment. It is military fanaticism. 

Ambassador Sharp, after a 100-mile trip through the 
evacuated territory, declared that never before in the history 
of the world had there been such a thorough destruction by 
either a vanquished or victorious army. 

One thing alone was left, after the red-brick villages had 
been turned into heaps and the murdered fruit trees into black 
fagots, on the hill outside of St. Quentin. This was the log 
hut and shooting box of the Kaiser's son, Eitel Friederick. Its 
white-barked beech was unburnt, its glass windows unbroken, 
its inside adornments unlooted, the tables and chairs of its ter- 
race beer garden remained. All around the works of man and 
God were destroyed. The contrast made this destroyer's lodge 
a sort of boast of his destruction. 



THE THINGS THAT MADE MEN MAD. 61 

The shocking ruin to human life in the evacuated region 
is of even greater moment. The half-starved civilians of Ba- 
paume were forced to make trenches there and later for the 
defense of Cambrai also. All men and boys strong enough to 
work were taken along with the retreating forces. Near Pe- 
ronne some hundreds of old men, women and children were 
found locked in a barn. One woman pathetically asked of an 
English officer, "Are you many?" And he was able to answer, 
"We are two millions now," and see her anxiety turned to re- 
lief and joy. Children who had been slowly starving for a 
year wandered about the ruins of their homes, but soon found 
reasons for smiling at the soldiers who had rescued them. 

NEITHER MEAT NOR MILK. 

These children had had no meat for months and no milk 
for a year and had almost forgotten the taste of butter. They 
probably never received a quarter of the rations Americans 
sent. Girls were compelled to attend the market gardens, and 
then the Germans took all the produce. The region was deso- 
lated and left inhabited by women and children moribund with 
misery and starvation. 

At Noyon, where the Germans had concentrated 10,000 
Belgian refugees, they promised to leave the American Relief 
Committee with sufficient supplies to feed them. But the last 
patrols completely sacked the American relief storehouses of 
all eatables and then dynamited the building. And it was from 
this place that fifty young women, from 18 to 25 years of age, 
were taken by the officers. Their distracted mothers were told 
that they were to be used as "officers' servants." 

At Ham, when a mother of six children, seeing her hus- 
band and two eldest daughters being carried away, remon- 
strated, she was told that as an alternative she might find their 
bodies in a canal in the rear of the house. 

Nothing could be more significant of the Government's 
attitude than the incident told by James W. Gerard. The 



62 THE THINGS THAT MADE MEN MAD. 

people of a town were imprisoned or fined for their conduct 
toward a delayed train of Canadian prisoners. When he heard 
it he thought that at last the Government was going to put a 
stop to the maltreatment of prisoners. But he learned on in- 
vesigation that the townsfolk had been punished for giving a 
little food and drink to the starving and fainting prisoners. 

And yet the most singularly brutal phase of this destruc- 
tion of nature and wealth and art and life is the German de- 
fense of it. War is always hell and most of the awful things 
in this war have had their counterparts in other conflicts, though 
the Teutonic element has brought some peculiar refinements of 
cussedness and has given a thoroughness and "pep" and "kick" 
to the war business. 

BETTER PREPARED NEXT TIME. 

German writers, instead of making excuses for turning 
the nation into a war machine for forty years, complain that 
Germany was not prepared as she should have been and would 
be better prepared next time. Her professors do not regret 
that the soldiers at the front are so unrestrained in cruelty, but 
urge that they are too soft and kind to make effective war. The 
German correspondents all write enthusiastically of the devas- 
tation of the country they are leaving and of the desert created 
by German genius. Editors speak of the mercy which tem- 
pered the necessary hardness towards this once beautiful stretch 
of country and its inhabitants. The destruction of property 
which can serve no military purpose is defended on the ground 
that it is legitimate from a strategic point of view. 

This all amounts to saying everything must give way to 
the considerations of war. It is taking the argument in the 
fable of the wolf and the lamb as serious philosophy and accept- 
ing the position of the wolf. They fail entirely to see the humor 
of the fable, and hence the fallacy of the wolf's argument. 

The greatest hope of civilization, which trembled for a 
time before the spectre of German barbarity, is that frightful- 



THE THINGS THAT MADE MEN MAD. 63 

ness cannot endure the long and full test. The great initial 
advantages are more than offset by new opponents. The gain 
of the invasion of Belgium was canceled by England coming 
into the war. The advantage against England of the U-boat 
campaign was more than canceled by the entrance of the 
United States in the war. 

Irvin Cobb says that the trouble with the Germans is that 
they are not "good sports and lack a sense of humor. It is 
impossible to conceive of a group of German officers playing 
football or baseball or cricket and abiding by the rules of the 
game. If Barbara Frietchie had said to a Prussian Stonewall 
Jackson, * Shoot, if you must, my gray old head,' he'd have 
done it as a matter of course." 



ARTICLE IV. 

THE SLINKING SUBMARINE. 

A Voracious Sea Monster — The Euthless Destructive Policy of Germany- 
Starvation of Nations the Goal — How the Submarines Operate — Some 
Personal Experiences. 

ALMOST the entire story of the world war is written 
around the development of the submarine. One can 
scarcely think of the terrible conflict without bringing 
to mind the wonderful "underseas" boat which has made in- 
famous Germany famous. The truth is that, in so far as Amer- 
ica is concerned, the conflict was precipitated by the ruthless 
submarine warfare which Germany waged as part of her plan 
to starve out England, France, Belgium — and all nations 
which opposed her. 

The slinking submarine proved an efficient instrument, 
whose activities clearly indicated the diabolical intent and pur- 
pose of Germany to make the whole world suffer, if necessary, 
to the end that she might gain her point and perpetuate the 
Hohenzollern dynasty. It was not so much that her subma- 
rines wrought havoc — for death and disaster stalk always with 
war — but the methods by which Germany waged their warfare 
and disregarded all the rules which had been laid down for the 
guidance of civilized countries at war proved conclusively that 
even the innocent could expect no quarter from her. 

The story of the sinking of the brave ocean steamship 
Lusitania on May 7, 1915, contains in its brief recital a typical 
illustration of Germany's lack of humanitarian instincts. The 
vessel, torpedoed off the coast of Ireland, went to the bottom 
of the ocean, carrying to death more than 1150 persons, many 
of them prominent Americans. With an audaciousness which 
has no counterpart in the history of civilized warfare, German 

64 



THE SLINKING SUBMARINE. 65 

agents in the United States had caused advertisements to be 
printed in the public press, warning citizens against sailing 
on the vessel, and advised that she was in danger of being 
destroyed. 

The world stood aghast and believed it impossible that 
Germany should carry out her threat, but they were soon to be 
disillusioned. Because the handsome vessel passed through a 
zone of the seas which the Teuton war lords declared block- 
aded, they sent a torpedo from an underseas boat into her 
bowels. The horrors of that event are still fresh in the minds 
of millions. No such ruthless and wanton destruction of inno- 
cent human beings had been accomplished by a so-called civili- 
zation at war. 

THE DUTIES OF WAR CAST ASIDE. 

Articles of The Hague agreement defining the rights and 
duties of nations at war, and which Germany had accepted, 
were thrust aside and disregarded by Imperial Germany. The 
Hohenzollern dynasty was above rules and regulations. Inter- 
national law and the rights of non-combatants at sea were as 
nothing. That all nations had agreed that the enemy ship must 
give the captain of the vessel attacked opportunity to land 
innocent passengers was forgotten. There had not been a 
word of warning. 

And Germany, and the adherents of the Imperial Govern- 
ment, expressing regret that Americans should have been sac- 
rificed, professed deep sorrow on one hand and on the other 
shouted with glee. America protested vigorously, quoting the 
laws and demanding that Germany recognize them — not mere- 
ly that she leave American vessels alone— and give assurance 
that no such further acts would be committed. 

Contending that the sinking of the ship was justifiable, in 
the exigencies of war, Germany ceased for a short time her 
wanton sinking of boats without warning. For almost a year 
her underseas crafts had been preying upon the small British 

H R— 5 



66 THE SLINKING SUBMARINE. 

coasting vessels, and sunk hundreds of fishing boats, trawlers 
and steamships. England's mercantile marine was the object 
of the Teuton's attacks, and no one had anticipated any danger 
to Americans or American interests. 

Germany had no reasons for desiring to attack American 
boats and she promised to mend her ways. There followed a 
brief period in which no vessels were sunk on which were Amer- 
icans, and then without warning the campaign against all ves- 
sels was renewed. A dozen were sunk on which were Ameri- 
can seamen or non-combatant passengers, none of whom was 
given warning or time to land before a torpedo sent the boat to 
the bottom of the ocean. Threats on the part of President 
Wilson to take action against Germany finally brought another 
cessation. 

GROWING DISTRESS AND AMAZEMENT. 

"The sinking of the British passenger steamship Fabala 
and other German acts constitute a series of events which the 
Government of the United States has observed with growing 
concern, distress and amazement," said President Wilson in a 
note on the submarine warfare. "This Government cannot 
admit the adoption of such measures or such a warning of 
danger as in any degree an abbreviation of the rights of Amer- 
ican shipmasters or American citizens, bound on lawful errands 
as passengers on merchant ships of belligerent nationality. It 
must hold the Imperial German Government to a strict ac- 
countability for any infringement of those rights, international 
or incidental. 

"The objection to their present method of attack lies in 
the practical impossibility of employing submarines in the de- 
struction of commerce without disregarding those rules of fair- 
ness, reason, justice and humanity which all modern opinions 
regard as imperative. 

"American citizens act within their indisputable rights in 
taking their ships and traveling wherever their legitimate busi- 
ness calls them upon the high seas. 



THE SLINKING SUBMARINE. 67 



"No warning that an unlawful and an inhuman act will be 
committed can possibly be accepted as an excuse or palliation 
for that act, or as an abatement of the responsibility for its 
commission. * * * . 

"The Imperial German Government will not expect the 
Government of the United States to omit any word or any act 
necessary to the performance of its sacred duty or the inalien- 
able rights of the United States and its citizens, and of safe- 
guarding their free exercise and enjoyment." 

WHOLESALE DESTRUCTION OF VESSELS. 

Apparently Germany modified her submarine policy for a 
period of upward of a year, or until in February, 1917, when 
to the astonished world she threw aside all pretense and de- 
clared her intention of destroying any vessel which attempted 
to cross or sailed into a zone which she established along the 
English coast and around English and French ports. Amer- 
ica's further protests availed not; her citizens, many of them, 
went to the bottom of the seas, and some of them suffered 
almost unbelievable cruelties or neglect, when the captain of a 
German sea raider with some humanitarian instincts permitted 
these innocent passengers or seamen to be rescued from the 
torpedoed vessels on which they were. 

Even the Red Cross vessels and Belgian relief ships carry- 
ing supplies and food to the maimed or sick at war and the 
starving children of Belgium did not escape the torpedo from 
the submarine. English hospital ships were attacked, and men 
unable to protect themselves were subjected to danger because 
the Germans feared that something might be carried on the 
boat which would prove valuable to the Allied forces in making 
war. ' 

Dozens — even hundreds of vessels of all sorts — were sunk 
from week to week. Food and supplies for the Allied forces 
were destroyed, until both England and France were threat- 
ened with starvation. 



68 THE SLINKING SUBMAKINE. 

All this was the work of the submarine. 

One smiled twenty-five years ago when he read that highly 
imaginative story of Jules Verne, "Twenty Thousand Leagues 
Under the Sea," and wondered if it would ever be possible for 
man to create such a marvelous underseas craft as that which 
the famous French writer described. Today the imaginative 
detail of the submarine which the novelist described has been 
crystallized, and the world has learned that dreams sometimes 

come true. 

Marvelous things have been developed by the war which 
is involving the peace and security of the world, but no single 
device has had such an effect upon the warfare and upon the 
methods of waging it as the diabolical submarine, which, like 
an assassin in the night, sneaks upon the great ships along the 
water highways of the world and sends them with their human 
freight to the bottom of the ocean. 

TORPEDO'S DEADLY WORK. 

A giant cigar-shaped missile, whose nose is pointed with 
guncotton and filled with high explosives — and which the 
world knows as the torpedo — launches forth from the subma- 
rine, and speeding under the drive of a propeller at the stern 
steers its way into the side of the battleship or great steamship. 
The torpedo plunges into the bowels of the vessel. There is a 
tremendous explosion, and the watertight compartments of the 
vessel are torn open; the boat fills, and the pride of the seas is 
no more. 

Had the vessel's master and her crew any warning? No; 
unless the vigilant officer on the bridge should note a thin pole 
with a hooked end projecting above the surface of the ocean 
some miles away, and turning his glasses upon it discover that 
it is the "eye" of a submarine — the periscope — which is pro- 
truding above the surface. Then he may turn his larger vessel 
and ram the submarine, or change the course of his craft so that 
the torpedo launched by the submarine will miss its mark, or 



THE SLINKING SUBMARINE. 69 

perhaps expert gunners may turn the muzzles of their rapid- 
fire guns upon the underseas craft and riddle it before it can 
get far enough below the surface of the water to make the 
attack upon it futile. 

EFFICIENCY OF THE SUBMARINE. 

The enormous inroads on the world's shipping made by 
German submarines during the war shows the efficiency of this 
diabolical device. In the first two years and a half of the war 
statistics were compiled to show that more than 10 per cent of 
the world's merchant marine was destroyed by Germany's 
underseas craft of the U-boat type. (Incidentally, the name 
U-boat as applied to submarines developed because Germany, 
instead of naming these slinking boats, as is the custom with 
surface-cruising vessels, painted upon the conning tower or 
nose of the craft the letter U, representing the word "under- 
seas," coupled with the numeral denoting the number of the 
boat. Thus those who sail the ocean highways came to recog- 
nize the fact that a conning tower or low, sharp-nosed craft 
bearing the mystic characters U-9 was a German underseas 
boat No. 9. 

The statistical records at the end of April, 1917, showed 
that nearly 3000 vessels of almost 5,000,000 gross tons were 
destroyed by the U-boats in the war. More than half of the 
vessels sunk belonged to England. Norway and France were 
the next greatest sufferers from the submarine warfare. In 
one week after Germany announced her intention to give no 
quarter, but to sink any vessel which came within the range of 
the U-boat torpedoes, the toll of ships lost was more than 
400,000 tons. 

At the beginning of the war the submarine was to all in- 
tents and purposes a novelty— a boat of recognized possibili- 
ies, but existing very largely in the experimental stage. Its 
use was very largely ignored by naval men, although it was 
conceded that when properly developed it would prove a won- 



70 THE SLINKING SUBMAEINE. 

derful agency of destruction. The proud commanders of the 
great battleships, with their 10, 12 and 14 inch guns, which sent 
great shells miles across the ocean, looked down upon the little 
underseas boat, and applied to it the sobriquet of "tin sardine." 
But the "tin sardine" has grown up, and the commander 
of the monster war vessel is at the mercy of the little craft 
which he ridiculed. A short time ago Holland, the American 
inventor of the modern submarine, died of a broken heart. His 
type was necessarily an experimental one. He built five boats 
before he was able to sell one to the United States Government, 
and this latter one, after being bought by a junk dealer, who 
intended to break it up for its metals, was finally rescued from 
such an inglorious end by the city of New York, which has 
placed it in her municipal museum. 

PRINCIPLE OF THE SUBMARINE. 

Germany has developed the highest type of submarines, 
which she has used to the fullest advantage. The principle of 
the submarine is that of a floating bottle. An empty bottle, as 
every one knows, will float on the surface, but submerges as 
soon as it is filled with water. The submarine has, as part of 
its constructive features, a number of compartments which, as 
they are filled or emptied of water, enables the craft to sub- 
merge or rise. 

At the bow and stern, respectively, there are two hori- 
zontal rudders, and as these are manipulated at various angles 
so the bow points either upward or downward, and with a 
steady gliding motion the submarine slides under or is brought 
to the surface. 

This, in brief, is the story of the submarine. Its history 
is another matter; its radius of action and results achieved one 
of the marvels of the ages. A long-sheathed body, the shape 
of a cigar with the butt end to the fore, the inside filled with 
machinery and compactness the order of the day, might be re- 
garded as a fair description from a physical standpoint. It 



THE SLINKING SUBMARINE. 71 

has spread terror to all corners of the earth, and, taken in pro- 
portion to its size and steaming radius, may well be said to be 
the superior of the superdreadnought. 

The manner in which the submarine is operated is difficult 
to describe. It leads a sort of dual existence. When cruising 
along the surface "awash," it is propelled like a motorboat, the 
power being provided by a gasoline engine ; but when it dives 
or submerges it is operated underwater by electric motors, and 
the steering, pumping, handling, loading and firing of the tor- 
pedoes is done pneumatically and electrically. The interior of 
the submarine is a marvel of mechanical complexity and scien- 
tific detail. There are gauges to show the water pressure, to 
indicate the speed, to show the depth; sensitive devices by 
which the commander can teH of the approach of vessels; 
wheels, cranks, levers and instruments which are used in driv- 
ing and controlling this almost human mechanical agency of 
the seafighter. 

SUBMARINE AN ANOMALY IN WARFARE. 

The submarine is the sudden and amazing problem of the 
naval world. While naval men assert with confidence that it 
can never win the mastery of the seas, in the same breath they 
will admit that it may easily prevent the older and better 
known types of ships from establishing the mastery that was 
once theirs. It is an anomaly in warfare. 

Many are the tales of horror told by survivors of ships 
which have been torpedoed by the undersea boats of the Teu- 
tons. The lordly Lusitania, on board of which were some of 
the leading lights of literature and some of the world's wealthy 
men, was sent to the bottom without the least warning. Neu- 
tral shipping has been devastated, and men, women and chil- 
dren have been murdered by the hand of the Kaiser, as exempli- 
fied in the lurking submarine. 

One of the dastardly tragedies of the war was the sinking 
of the Lars Kruse, a ship flying the Danish flag and which had 



72 THE SLINKING SUBMARINE. 

been chartered by the Belgian Relief Commission. This was 
sunk in the early part of February, 1917, and the crew of nine- 
teen men, together with the captain and other officers, with the 
exception of the first mate and Axel Moeller, the first engineer, 
perished in the bitter cold sea. No warning was given by the 
attacking submarine; indeed, no sight of it was had by the 
crew. Delivering its torpedo as it lay submerged, it silently 
stole away into the night after the murders had been done. 

In the maritime court in Copenhagen Mr. Moeller tells of 
the sinking of the ship. Dressed as the regulations of the Ger- 
man autocrat demanded, with the balloon, flag and bunting dis- 
played at each of the mastheads, together with other marks of 
identification, the ship was steaming along in the bright moon- 
light when she was struck, according to the testimony of the 
engineer. 

SHIP NOT STRUCK BY A MINE. 

The fact that the ship was hit near the fourth hatch alone 
combats the theory that she was struck by a mine. In this latter 
case the mine would have struck her nearer the bow. The ship 
was near the mouth of the English channel when hit. In an 
instant she started to settle, and the crew at once lowered away 
the single lifeboat. 

The boat had hardly started over the side, however, before 
the ship lurched, and with a mighty heave went down stern first. 
She seemed to turn a back somersault, according to the engi- 
neer, and because of the fact that the lifeboat was not clear it 
was dragged under. The men succeeded in cutting the ropes, 
however, and the lifeboat came to the surface, although bottom 
side up. Engineer Moeller was struck on the head as the boat 
came to the surface, but, although he was momentarily stunned, 
the icy water quickly revived him. 

Striking out for the lifeboat, the engineer soon had a tight 
grip on her side. A man struggling in the water grasped his 
wrist, but by a quick movement he wrenched himself free, and 



THE SLINKING SUBMARINE. 73 

then, climbing upon the boat, reached out and caught the man 
by the hand. Then began a slow struggle to get him aboard, 
but the men were unequal to the task, and the man in the water 
sank. Part of the skin and flesh of his hand remained in the 
fingers of Moeller, showing the desperation with which he had 
clung to the man's hand. 

Three other men, who were fast becoming exhausted, were 
assisted upon the boat, where they lay sprawled across its bot- 
tom. Four others were in the water, making a total of seven 
who were alive. 

Water and air were freezing cold, and Moeller, who was 
in the water, together with three others, held to the gunwales 
with stiffened fingers. Within the hour one of the sailors gave 
up the struggle, and with a farewell to the others slid quietly 
into the depths. 

PASSENGERS' AGONIZING SUFFERINGS. 

Finally Moeller climbed upon the upturned boat, where 
he lay listening to the shrieks of his companions. He said that 
their cries were most pitiful. The cabin boy was the next vic- 
tim. He cried pitifully for a time, but finally became silent 
and slid into the water. One after another, the men died of 
exposure and slipped into the peaceful sea. 

After a time the only persons remaining, besides the third 
mate, were the two who had thrown themselves across the bot- 
tom of the boat. Finally one of them gave up the struggle, 
and the other, in an effort to combat the cold, pulled the clothes 
from his dead body and wrapped them about himself. The 
boat settled a little, and finally both were corpses, lying with 
feet and hands dipping into the sea. The engineer said that he 
did not have the heart to push their bodies into the water, 
although he knew they were dead. 

Finally the third mate was the only other man alive. The 
clothes of the engineer were frozen fast to his body, and he felt 
that he was dying of cold. The third mate started to get a sort 



74 THE SLINKING SUBMARINE. 

of bluish black from the cold, and with a gasping cry he at- 
tempted to sit up straight. Then reason left him, and for a 
couple of hours he shouted and shrieked, and, as the sun began 
to streak the sky and dawn brought slight comfort, the dement- 
ed man raved and swore. 

Then a flash of reason seemed to return to him and he 
spoke to Moeller. 

"I'm going," he said. "Give my love to my wife." 
The man had been married just before starting on this ill- 
fated voyage. With this farewell message on his lips he died. 
When Moeller returned to his home he found that it was impos- 
sible to deliver the message to the wife of the dead man, because 
of the fact that worry had driven her insane. 

TROUSERS USED AS SIGNAL. 

Shortly after the death of his companion Moeller saw 
the smoke of a steamer on the horizon. Summoning all his 
strength, he tore the trousers from the limbs of one of the dead 
men, and, using them as a means of signaling, swung them 
about his head to attract attention. As the engineer made 
every effort to attract the attention of those aboard the steam- 
ship, he saw a sneaking submarine slowly edging toward her. 
This made him shout all the louder, thinking thereby to warn 
the captain of the ship of his danger. His efforts were vain, 
however, and in a short time the ship had gone to the bottom 
and the crew was adrift in the lifeboats. The sunken ship 
proved to be a Russian steamer. 

In his efforts to attract the attention of the intended vic- 
tim of the U-boat, the drifting man had attracted the attention 
of the captain of the submarine, and it was this boat to which 
his cold-stiffened body was hauled a few minutes later. It was 
a time before his numb body could be thawed out. 

Seeming to know from which ship he had been cast off, 
the engineer was closely questioned by the captain of the sub- 
marine. As the captain talked he made motions, as though to 



THE SLINKING SUBMARINE. 75 

shut out from before his eyes a horrible sight. He told Moeller 
afterwards that the most horrible sight he had ever seen was the 
overturned boat with the two corpses laying on it, and the lone 
man signaling for help. The victim was black from cold, and 
his legs were rubbed by members of the crew. Port wine was 
given him, and later food and coffee. 

Then the captain continued his questioning. He knew 
the name of the boat on which Moeller had been engineer, and 
from his intimate knowledge of the sinking of her, the engineer 
felt sure it was his submarine that had done the work. 
SUBMARINE TOWS RUSSIAN SHIP. 

Turning his attention to the lifeboats of the Russian ship 
which he had just torpedoed, the captain of the submarine 
promised to tow them to the French coast. He had been tow- 
ing them but two hours, however, when he came below and told 
Moeller that he had sighted a French destroyer, and that he 
would have to make his escape. He gave the engineer his 
choice of staying on the submarine, in which case it would be 
fourteen days»before he touched port, after which he was prom- 
ised his freedom, or the privilege of getting aboard one of the 
lifeboats, and taking his chances of rescue by the destroyer. 

Electing to take his chances in the lifeboat, Moeller was 
fitted out with new clothing, the outfit being topped off with a 
fur-lined overcoat. It turned out, however, that the captain 
had taken this clothing from the stores of the Russian steamer 
before sinking her, and the engineer learned when he got into 
the lifeboat that he was wearing the greatcoat of one of the 
shivering Russians. 

Just before submerging the U-boat set off a couple of red- 
light bombs, for the purpose of attracting the attention of the 
crew of the destroyer, and submerged. The drifters were 
picked up by the destroyer, which steamed for France. The 
captain of the U-boat had promised Moeller that he would not 
attack the destroyer, although he had been trailing her for two 



76 THE SLINKING SUBMARINE. 

weeks. The U-boat was sunk before she reached port, and all 
perished. 

An American importer who, because of his German name 
and the intimate relations he enjoyed with certain important 
men in Berlin, had been taken to the hearts of some of the 
leaders, became a factor in pro-German activities in Cuba. He 
was taken into the confidences of many of the officials and 
learned the plans of the Tirpitz group. 

Deciding that his allegiance was American, he returned to 
the United States. In his possession were many of the inner 
secrets of the German Government, and these were given to 
the officials in Washington. His information with reference to 
the submarine has been of great value to the government. 

For the sake of convenience we will call the man Johann 
Schmidt. This is his story : 

THE U-BOAT TYPE OF SUBMERSIBLE. 

Germany's most successful and highly developed class of 
submarine has been, of course, the U-boat type of submersible. 
These are the terrors of the sea which have succeeded in cross- 
ing the Atlantic, and have been developed both as the fighting 
and as the commercial U-boat. 

Herr Schmidt reported that Germany was constructing 
submarines 25 per cent larger than anything the United States 
had ever seen or heard of. His information was to the effect 
that Germany had a building capacity for ten submarines a 
week. The ability to produce these boats with such rapidity is 
due to the process of standardization — the practice of modern 
efficiency which has made it possible for American factories to 
turn out such big quantities of automobiles in a limited period. 

All parts of the German U-boats are made in standard 
sizes and from the same original pattern. Consequently, these 
parts are turned out by machinery in replica, and the building 
of the finished boats is merely a matter of assembling them at 
points to which the various parts have been shipped. The 



THE SLINKING SUBMARINE. 77 

Diesel oil engine, which is regarded as the ideal power-pro- 
ducing engine for submarines, has been developed to its highest 
state of efficiency by Germany, and is made at the famous 
Krupp gun works, the great engine works in Augsburg, 
Emden and Nuremburg, and other less well-known places in 
Germany. 

It has been estimated that Germany has anywhere from 
250 to 500 submarines, and it is said that the aim is to produce 
1000 of these craft, to absolutely destroy the commerce of the 
seas and starve into submission England and France. 

HOW SUBMARINES WORK. 

According to Herr Schmidt, the submarines work in 
groups of four. Because of the limited capacity of the boats 
for carrying provisions, supplies and fuel, it is necessary for 
them to have supply bases, to which they can return and secure 
torpedoes. In operation each group consists of four subma- 
rines, traveling along in a diamond-shaped formation, one in 
front, one on either flank and one in rear. Eight miles sepa- 
rate the boats. The leading submarine carries the extra gaso- 
line and supplies and acts as a scoutship; she sights a vessel, 
reports its speed and direction and then submerges — her task 
is done. 

The two torpedo carriers on either flank immediately 
change their courses so as to converge on the prey, and they 
arrive one on either side of her — they get her in between them. 
The boat in the rear keeps them informed as to the doomed 
ship's progress, and submerges at the last moment. She car- 
ries the extra crews for the fighting pair. The U-boats are 
fairly well protected against the onslaught of the light torpedo- 
boat destroyers and chasers, because the decks are protected by 
several feet of water at almost all times, while the commanding 
tower is covered with from two to three inches of the best steel 
armor plate. 

It is related that at the outset of the U-boat menace, Eng- 



78 THE SLINKING SUBMARINE. 

land ordered its commanding officers to ram the U-boats on 
sight. The length to which the Germans will go in an effort to 
win is illustrated by the fact that, in consequence of this order, 
a Von Tirpitz council presented this answer: Attacking sub- 
marines were equipped with explosive mines containing 300 to 
400 pounds of nitroglycerin or guncotton. To the top of this 
mine was fastened a fake periscope. This devilish device was 
attached to the submarine by a light cable, and towed along 
the surface of the water 1000 feet or more behind the subma- 
rine. The result that would follow any attempt on the part of 
a commander to run down one of these decoys is readily 
imagined. 

DESCRIPTION OF A PERISCOPE. 

The periscope is distinctly a submarine device which is 
worthy of brief description. It is, in effect, a long tube, with 
an elbow joint at the top and a similar one at the bottom. At 
the elbow joints at both ends are arranged reflectors. The re- 
flector in the upper end catches the object which comes within 
the range of vision, and reflects the image down the tube to the 
mirror at the lower elbow, where the pilot sees it. The prin- 
ciple of the periscope is the same as that of the "busybody," 
familiar to householders, and which is placed on the sill of an 
upper window, so that a person inside the house may see who 
is at the front door. 

The Germans have recently devised a new form of peri- 
scope, designed to make the device invisible to the lookout of 
approaching boats. This device consists of two mirrors, put 
together like a "Y" lying on its side, the wide part in front. 
These skim through the waves and converge the image upon 
the low periscope's lens, which shoots the light down the tube 
to the receiving apparatus below. When looked at from a dis- 
tance the mirrors reflect the surface of the sea, so that a look- 
out sees nothing but the waves as they are reflected in the 
mirror. 



THE SLINKING SUBMARINE. 79 

The Germans use the bottom of the sea as regular "land" 
for their supply bases, and when the submarines go to the sur- 
face it is precisely like an aeroplane mounting the air. The 
submarine fleet boasts also of "mother boats." They lie on the 
bottom of the ocean, in designated places, and rise at night to 
hand out their supplies. Crews are changed and tired men go 
back to the bottom to rest up, while fresher comrades take their 
places. 

So, too, the submarine, with its ability to rest on the bot- 
tom of the sea, has become an efficient boat for mine laying. 
The mine layers work from the undersea boats without fear of 
disturbance, the divers walking out from the submarines to the 
floor of the sea without being seen or without ever coming to 
the surface. 

TALES OF REMARKABLE EXPLOITS. 

American citizens landed from vessels sunk by German 
submarines tell remarkable tales of the strenuous exploits of 
the U-boats. In one case three undersea boats appeared simul- 
taneously alongside the ship, one being a submarine cruiser, 
300 feet long, and the others old-fashioned submarines, with a 
length 'of about 120 feet. 

In another case a German submarine wore an elaborate 
disguise of a fishing boat. This submarine carried a gun which 
had a range of nearly five miles. 

In at least two cases the crews of vessels sunk by sub- 
marines were rescued from open boats by passing ships, only 
to suffer a repetition of disaster when the ship on which they 
had taken refuge fell prey to an underwater boat. 

A seaman from Pensacola, who was a member of the crew 
of a Swedish sailing vessel, said : 

"We were almost within sight of land late in the after- 
noon when we observed a Norwegian sailing vessel in an en- 
counter with a submarine eight miles away. Apprehending 
that our turn would come next, we prepared a lifeboat. A 



80 THE SLINKING SUBMARINE. 

300-foot submarine came up to us in due course and fired three 
warning shots from its heavy gun. 

"We pulled our boat over to the lifeboat from the Nor- 
wegian ship previously sunk, and a dozen hours later were 
picked up by a British steamer. We had only a brief stay on 
the British boat, as she was torpedoed the same morning. 
After a few hours in the boats we were found by a British 
patrol and landed." 

A Baltimore seaman from a Danish sailing vessel said: 

THE SHIP ABANDONED. 

"We abandoned ship in response to three shots from a 
submarine. Thereupon the submarine fired twenty-two shots 
into the hull of the ship, sinking her. We tried to speak with 
the submarine commander, but he told us he was in a hurry, as 
he had to attend to a Norwegian bark which was waiting a 
short distance off. 

"We pulled for the nearest land, and all our twenty-five 
men got ashore safe, although both lifeboats were badly 
smashed up in the surf as we were beaching them." 

A Philadelphian described the manner in which his 
steamer escaped being sunk. 

"We were attacked by a submarine disguised as a fishing 
vessel," he said. "She opened fire on us at five miles, sending 
fifteen shots at us, and smashing our wireless. She pursued us 
for an hour. We did not use our gun. Finally a British patrol 
boat appeared. The submarine submerged, disguise and all, 
presenting a ludicrous sight as the carefully prepared equip- 
ment simulating a fishing boat sank beneath the waves." 

The captain of an American sailing ship which was sunk 
said: 

"Submarines are lying along the sea lanes in regular 
nests. They keep well under the water most of the time, com- 
ing up now and then for periscopic observations, or on hear- 
ing the approach of merchant craft, which often can be iden- 




Photo Underwood & Underwood. 



THE ARREST OF THE ASSASSIN. 

Scene immediately after the murder of the Archduke an d Archduchess of Austria in the streets of 

Sarajevo, Bosnia. The arrest of Gavrio Princip, the murderer. 




©Underwood & Underwood. 
NATIONAL GUARDSMAN WEARING COMPLETE EQUIPMENT, READY FOR WAR. 
A soldier's equipment consists of a great number of articles, skillfully packed so that they make a 
small bundle, considering the number of articles. The kit includes a blanket, rifle, bayonet, kit 
bag, cartridge belt, canteen, pan, plate, knife, fork, spoon, tent spikes, rubber blanket aud other 
miscellaneous articles. The photo shows three views— side, front and back, with equipment 
attached. 



Photo. American Press Association. 
CANADIAN OFFICIAL PHOTOGRAPH. 
The taking oi Vimy Ridge, on the western front. Canadian brigade machine gunners digging 

into shell holes. 




©American Press Association. 
CANADIAN OFFICIAL PHOTOGRAPH. • 
Stretcher cases on the western front waiting to be loaded on a light railway. 




Photo International Film Service. 
CAPTURE OF BAPAUME BY BRITISH. 
Scene on the day British troops entered Bapaume, a French city evacuated by the Germans in 
their retreat to the Hindenburg line. Cheerful British soldiers are seen in a street. 




Photo Underwood & Underwood. 
FRENCH PASSING THROUGH RECAPTURED NOYON. 
They are on the heels of the Germans. The photograph shows how the town was wrecked by the 

Germans before they evacuated.. 



.2 AS 




EP-i 

a 9-0-0 
w §S 




;HW^WLVS -AKMRWAIW ^ICEWANS jui^SiMtSS tfaOT M-A«B5i« fMOHTBNEO* 

SOLDIERS OF THE DIFFEREN1 
This picture shows the portraits and headdress 01 




JGAGED IN THE WORLD WAR. 

ative lighters now engaged in the European war. 




Underwood & Underwood. 



•• v— I— 0— T— O— K— Y." 
Sailors spelling the word »' VICTORY" with Bags. 




©N. G. Mtoser. 

From Underwood & Underwood. 



Stefetfeg through the 40 power telescope on ChQ V. S S. Pennsylvania. Objects at great distances 
- * .,to clearly distinguished through this telescope 




" V— I— C— T— O— R— Y." 
Sailors spelling the word " VICTORY" with flags. 



Underwood & Underwood. 




©N. G. Moser. 
From Underwood & Underwood. 
Sighting through the 40 power telescope on the U. S. S. Pennsylvania. Objects at great distances 
are clearly distinguished through this telescope, 




Photo International Film Service. 
"TANK" ARTILLERY PROTECTION. 
U. S. soldiers learning this new method of warfare. 









» 


Ato ' ^ 5tt& -'ifsk 








H£»v >^^jMA.J 




4 .; ; t 


«^iT; .;- ! ^3^ 


mm 


B^^K-V'^S 










' :..v. iM,J , - : , | 


■.*7**w» ■SV^i. * 


. *.»?," 




"^ .d-*^^''*^; .■■■: ,.>■& 


fe ..,..«,. * K. 


— ■ n 




**§^^wiS 



Photo Press Illustrating Co. 
THE BARBED WIRE WAR. 
Germans laying barbed wire entanglement at the Russian front. 




© Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. 
CARRYING OLD GLORY THROUGH LONDON. 
United States soldiers, carrying the Stars and Stripes and Regimental Standard, 
passed cheering crowds at the head of a National army command that marched 
through London on May 11th, 1918. 




Photo Underwood & .Underwood. 

THE FIGHTING KING OF BELGIUM. 

Albert I, who since the outbreak of the war has been known as the " Fighting King," 
is a nephew of the late King Leopold, whom he succeeded in 1909. The photograph 
shows his wife and three children. 



THE SLINKING SUBMARINE. 81 

tified readily by the sound of the engines. By thus conserving 
fuel the submarines are able to remain away from their base a 
long time, and also they find means of renewing their stores 
from ships which they sink. 

"The U-boat which sank us had been out for six weeks. 
She had one British captain on board. She renewed all her 
supplies from our boat and took all the nautical instruments. 
The submarine gave us a sharp signal to halt, with a shell from 
a distance of two miles. It was good marksmanship. The 
shot hit the ship squarely, but caused no casualties. We 
stopped and took to the boats. The submarine came up in 
leisurely fashion, sank the ship with bombs and passed the time 
of day with our boats. She had a crew of thirty-seven, and 
was 250 feet long. 

"We were picked up by a Norwegian sailing vessel, on 
which we spent six days. She was then attacked by a 120-foot 
submarine. We all took to the Norwegian's boats. The sub- 
marine commander declined to look at the Norwegian cap- 
tain's papers. We had another twenty-four hours in open 
boats, and then were picked up by a British patrol and 
landed." 



H R— © 



CHAPTER V. 
THWABTING THE U-BOAT. 

Nets to Entangle the Sea Sharks of Wab — " Chasers " or " Skimming- 
dish " Boats — " Blimps " and Seaplanes — Hunting the Submarine with 
" Lance," Bomb and Gun — A Sailor's Description. 

THE. advantage which Germany gained by the development 
of what has been termed the supersubmarine placed the 
other nations where it became absolutely necessary for 
them to concentrate their energies in an effort to counteract 
the devastation which the U-boats brought upon the seas. 
England tried first to protect the English channel and many 
of its ports with mines, floating bombs and submarine nets, and 
while the latter served as barriers which prevented the sub- 
marines penetrating into some of the important waters and 
harbors, they could act merely in a protective sense. 

The submarine net is a specially devised net with heavy 
iron or wire meshes, similar to a fishing net. These nets — 
miles in length — were born of the nets originally devised to 
sweep harbors clear of mines. They are carried between two 
boats described as trawlers, which are a form of sea-going tug 
with powerful engines, that can draw a heavy load. A heavy 
cable runs from trawler to trawler, and from this the chain net 
is suspended in the water. It is heavily weighted at the bot- 
tom so as to hold it in a perpendicular position. The trawlers 
steaming along, side by side, sweep up with the net anything 
which may be placed in the water for the purpose of blowing 
up or injuring vessels. 

The submarine nets in some places have been anchored to 
form a regular barrier against the passage of submarine boats, 
and in this way were effective, but their use could in no way re- 
strict the underseas boats in their work upon the open seas. 

The most effective plan of overcoming the dire conse- 
quences of the U-boat warfare was found, therefore, to lie in 

82 



THWARTING THE U-BOAT. 83 

the use of submarine chasers and airships, the two operating 
together in conjunction with the battleships, cruisers and tor- 
pedo boat destroyers. 

The submarine chaser is a light-draught, high-powered, 
skimming-dish type of husky motorboat, mounting rapid-fire, 
3 or 4-inch guns. In order to prove effective against the sub- 
marine it is necessary to have many of these boats, and it is a 
matter of particular interest that the marvelous resources of 
the United States at the time of her entrance into the war en- 
abled her to immediately begin a campaign for the construction 
of chasers, which would be able to guard the seas in the chan- 
nels of traffic and along the ports into which the submarine 
might attempt to sneak. 

NO EXPERT NAVAL KNOWLEDGE REQUIRED. 

The operation of the chaser does not require the degree of 
technical skill and knowledge of naval strategy required in the 
handling of ships of the naval type. A fleet of chasers is 
manned largely by naval reserves, who have a certain amount of 
training, but who are neither navigators nor experts in naval 
affairs. The operations are, however, directed by the naval 
authorities. 

The submarine chaser is effective because it draws very 
little water, has high speed, can be quickly turned and diverted 
from its course and does not present any great depth of hull at 
which the submarine can fire a torpedo. It would be possible 
for a torpedo to pass under a chaser without hitting it — if the 
submarine cared to waste such an expensive weapon on so small 
an adversary. When the submarine attempts to come to the 
surface and use the rapid-fire gun with which she is armed she 
is at a disadvantage, because it takes her several minutes to 
emerge. Additional time is required to swing the gun up 
through its automatic hatch while the men scramble to the deck 
to man it. 

The chaser, with a speed of approximately 35 to 40 miles 



84 THWARTING THE U-BOAT. 

an hour, will travel somewhere between a mile and a half to 
two miles in this period. Its gun has been ready from the start, 
and the chaser has had half a dozen shots or so with only a 
single hit needed to put the submarine out of commission. Even 
if the submarine is at the surface and has her gun mounted 
ready for action, she is at a. disadvantage with the chaser. The 
chaser, taking advantage of her speed and small size, goes 
skimming across the water at the rate of 40 miles an hour, and 
it takes a mighty fine gunner to be able to hit a small craft, go- 
ing in a zigzag course over the water at such speed. 

The chaser may continue to circle the submarine awaiting 
her opportunity which will of necessity come when the U-boat 
attempts to submerge. The submarine must go through the 
regular form of running back her gun, and battening down the 
water-tight hatches, before she can submerge, and the latter 
process again takes several minutes. Therefore while the sub- 
marine is preparing to dip, the chaser can run upon her and let 
loose the fire from its rapid-fire gun. 

I A POOR SURFACE FIGHTER. 

The submarine, by very virtue of the qualities which make 
it a good submarine, is a poor boat for surface fighting. 
It can carry no very heavy armament, and it is not heavily arm- 
ored. The problem of stowing away all the heavy machinery, 
supplies, torpedoes and devices necessary for her operations 
and maneuvering has presented about all the difficulties the 
constructors have been able to handle. The highest speed of 
the submarine is not in execess of 20 miles an hour. The sub- 
marine must be light and easy to handle. It gains in steadi- 
ness and certainty of operation with increased size, but it loses 
in capacity for quick and delicate maneuvering. 

In addition the submarine has what is termed a strategic 
vulnerability. A shot which might mean nothing more serious 
than a hole in the side to a surface boat would end the sub- 



THWARTING THE U-BOAT. 85 

marine's usefulness for underseas work and convert her into a 
helpless hulk of surface craft. 

The submarine is an easy quarry for a chaser, for even 
when submerged and moving along, the U-boat creates a dis- 
tinct wave on the surface of the water which can be followed by 
the chaser. The little boats are just what their name implies — 
chasers — and besides having the qualities already described 
they may conceal themselves behind large steamers, and when 
the submarine in preparing to launch a torpedo makes its pres- 
ence known the chaser may speed from its hiding place and 
drive the underseas craft away, even if it does not succeed in 
injuring it. 

OPERATING IN CONNECTION WITH AN AEROPLANE. 

The chasers also have a special facility of operation in con- 
nection with the aeroplane or seaplane, principally because of 
their high speed ; and next to the chaser the aeroplane is one of 
the submarine's worst enemies. Used in conjunction with the 
regular torpedo boat destroyers of the navy, the chaser and the 
aeroplane promise in future wars to minimize the effectiveness 
of the underseas craft. This is proven by the fact that imme- 
diately after the United States naval forces joined those of the 
Allies in European waters, the disasters resultant upon sub- 
marine attacks were greatly reduced. The speedy destroyers, 
while not actually sinking many submarines, by their vigilance 
prevented the submarine from operating. 

Large types of the chasers ordered in this country by the 
Russian Government are 72 feet long by 11 feet 3 inches wide 
and draw 3 feet 3 inches of water. Each boat carries three of 
the 8-cylinder 6%x7% Duesenberg, 350 to 400 horsepower 
motors. The boats carry an 18-inch torpedo tube amidships 
and a 47-millimetre rapid-fire gun on the forward deck. They 
are controlled from the bridge deck with a sheltered cabin for 
the quartermaster, with controls from either the shelter or 



86 THWARTING THE U-BOAT. 

bridge deck. They have a guaranteed speed of twenty-eight 
knots. 

Deck arrangements consist of the following: A hatch to 
the fo'castle, followed by the emplacement for the rapid-fire 
gun. Following this is the steering shelter containing dupli- 
cate controls, &c, for the engine room and for the steering. 
Immediately aft of the steering shelter is the bridge deck, lo- 
cated on top of the engine room trunk house. The entire after 
half of the vessel is a clear sweep of deck with the exception of 
a booby hatch to crews' quarters well aft. 

The boats are arranged for wireless with foremast and 
jigger mast. Rail stanchions in the way of the torpedo tube 
are hinged down, giving clear sweep to the tube for firing pur- 
poses. 

PROVISION FOR OFFICERS AND CREW. 

Below decks ample space has been provided for the crew 
and officers. The forepeak is arranged for chain lockers and 
bosun's gear lockers, followed by ship's galley, which has two 
pipe berths. Next to the galley is located the officers' cabin 
and wireless room, which is entered by a hatch from the steer- 
ing shelter. This cabin accommodates two officers and includes 
lavatory, officers' desks, wireless desk and folding mess table. 

Next aft is the machinery space, in which are located the 
three eight cylinder Duesenberg motors, a three k. w. universal 
lighting set, the necessary oil tanks, batteries and a work bench. 
The next compartment contains fuel tanks, with 1300 gallons 
capacity. Aft of this compartment is located the crew's quar- 
ters, berthing eight men, with lavatory attached. The hull is 
divided into six watertight compartments by steel bulkheads. 

The hull is of wooden construction, as developed for this 
service by the builders. 

The 72-footers develop a speed of twenty-eight knots and 
have a cruising radius exceeding 1200 miles. The design of 
the hull is the concave bottom, square bilge type, developed for 
this particular service. It furnishes a steady gun platform, 



THWARTING THE U-BOAT. 87 

which, with the necessary speed, is the most vital feature of a 
submarine chaser. 

The demand for speed and stability was borne out by the 
experience of the Russian and Italian navies in their active 
work and no consideration at all is given propositions from 
these two countries which do not range Well about twenty-five 
knots. 

Exceptional success was attained by the Russian Black Sea 
and by the Italian high speed fleets in actual use and their de- 
mand for exceptional speed was based on experience. 

It is a well known fact that the Russian government was 
successful in patroling its shores and in protecting its harbors 
and shipping. The Italian government also was exceptionally 
successful in maintaining its mercantile fleet in comparative 
safety and in protecting its harbors against the offensive work 
of enemy submarines. The entire Italian fleet of submarine 
chasers consists of high speed, high powered motor patrol boats, 
most of which were equipped with American made motors. 

CATALOGUED AS " PATROL BOATS." 
In a general way the "chasers" are catalogued in naval 
circles as "patrol boats." England has thousands of them, 
ranging from motorboats to naval auxiliaries, raking the Eng- 
lish Channel, the North Sea and the waters all about the Brit- 
ish Isles. iAs a rule the boats work in groups of five or six, 
one boat serving as a flagship — and often there is a "blimp" 
attached to the fleet. The armament of these small vessels is 
distinctive. Each carries, besides a deck gun, a "depth 
charge," half a dozen lance bombs and arms for each member 
of the crew. The deck gun fires a shell that weighs about 
thirteen pounds. 

The "depth charge" is a submarine bomb, so constructed 
that it is discharged at any determined depth of water when 
thrown overboard. If the water is 100 feet deep the bomb 
will explode at that depth. The bombs are used to drop in 



88 THWARTING THE U-BOAT. 

places where the submarine has been located or is expected of 
lurking in the bottom of the sea. While the exploding bomb 
may not strike the underseas boat it will create havoc on board 
the underwater craft if discharged in close proximity, the extra 
water pressure exerted causing disarrangement of the delicate 
mechanism, if not rendering the boat unfit for service. 

Some of the patrol boats of the English have been armed 
with "lance bombs." These are bombs of highly explosive char- 
acter which are fastened to the end of a long pole or staff. 
They are used just as a harpoon is used when by chance a sub- 
marine may emerge from the water in too close proximity to 
the chaser. It is not of record that any U-boats have been sunk 
with these strange javelins, but official reports show that the 
boats are armed with them for emergencies. 

CHASER TROUBLES THE SUBMARINE. 

What with dragging bombs through the water, and set- 
ting traps and nests for the submarines, the chasers make great 
trouble for the underseas craft, but the ingenious Germans are 
constantly on the alert, and it has been proved that in one or 
two instances at least the submarines cut their way through 
the heavy chain nets which were set to catch them near Havre. 
It was said that the submarine was provided with steel knives 
or wire cutters, and shears operated by electricity or pneumatic 
pressure, which enabled the boat to cut its way through the bar- 
rier of chains and wires. 

As a means of visualizing the operations of the "chaser" 
and giving some idea of the excitement which attends the at- 
tempt to run down the under-seas craft, the following descrip- 
tion by an English sailor is interesting. The chase occurred 
off the Isle of Wight : 

"Offshore a short distance was a patrol boat lying very 
low and flying distress signals. We had run over to her and 
learned that about an hour before the periscope of a submarine 
had been stuck up not far from her, then the craft had sub- 



THWARTING THE U-BOAT. 89 

merged, appeared again about a mile away, and fired four 
shots, which let in enough water slowly to sink the patrol, 
which before the war had been nothing but a dirty little trawler. 

"Finding the crew of the patrol could take care of them- 
selves in their small boats and learning that the submarine had 
run over to the westward, where we knew chain net traps to be 
laid, we circled in that direction. 

"Our powerful motors thrummed evenly. The water 
seemed to part ahead of us, and the gunners squinted along the 
surface, looking for the glimpse of a periscope or the first sign 
of the hull of the U-boat if she should be proceeding awash. 

CREW THRILLED WITH JOY. 

"Suddenly, off to the west, we made out her periscope. 
Intense joy thrilled our little crew. She was inshore from us. 
She was between our circular course and the chain nets — in the 
trap. The periscope we had seen might be a dummy, for a 
submarine frequently casts loose a phoney periscope to draw 
fire, but, at any rate, she must have been between us and the 
nets if she cut it loose. 

"Presently, probably after a look around, the periscope 
suddenly disappeared, and we knew it was a real one with a 
German U-boat on the end of it. Like a flock of falcons we 
were swooping down on the prey. 

"Abruptly the lead boat comes to a dead stop and lists 
heavily to starboard. Evidently something is wrong. We see 
men crawl out over the stern and fish around with boat hooks 
and poles. Cold as it is, one man goes overboard and remains 
under water so long we could not believe he would come up 
alive. The boat had fouled the chain nets. 

"Circling round in an ever smaller radius, we search the 
water for a periscope, a shadow, or the conventional "streak 
of dirty grease' or line of bubbles.' 

"All of us have towing torpodoes out. These are bombs 
on long cables which are towed astern and sink to a certain 



90 THWARTING THE U-BOAT. 

specified depth. If the cable fouls anything at all, as the boat 
goes ahead, the bomb pulls up to it, and, when it bumps, it 
explodes. 

"We are in line. Suddenly there is a crash and a roar 
just ahead of us. I am thrown off my feet. Barrels of water 
splash down into our cockpit and roll off the decks. The bow 
lifts itself clean for a second. II think that the submarine has 
blown us up. Perhaps I am dead already. 

"Then we settle down again, and except for a scared look 
on the faces of a couple of men and rather nervous, forced jests 
on the lips of others, we are plowing ahead just as before. 

"Nothing has happened except the towing torpedo of the 

boat in front of us in the line fouled a submerged spar, or a bit 

of wreckage, and exploded right under our bow. 'If we had 

been a few yards closer we would never have been there any 

more.' 

FOULS A SUBMERGED SPAR. 

"As we realized what had happened, our tongues were 
loosened, and, if the crew of the boat ahead could have heard 
what we said about them, we would have lost their friendship 
most assuredly. 

"Way inshore, after a circling chase of perhaps twenty 
minutes, the submarine came up. She was in such shallow 
water that she probably was having trouble in operating sub- 
merged. She was gone then. 

"What followed was very business-like. It illustrates the 
attitude the British have come to take toward the submarines 
because of their flagrant violations of every form of inter- 
national law and decency. It is the attitude which any country, 
obliged to fight against them, will assume. To the British 
mind, submarines must be exterminated, just as one would ex- 
terminate a nest of poisonous vipers, or a nest of hornets. Peo- 
ple ask me how many submarines are being captured now. 
Very few! Many are destroyed, but few captured. 

"No sooner did the hull of the submarine show itself than 



THWARTING THE U-BOAT. 91 

we began to hammer her with our three-inch guns. She opened 
fire, but her shots went wild, and, in a few seconds, she dis- 
appeared. 

"As fast as we could, we ran over to where she had gone 
down. If the principles which obtain on land, in the air or in 
the navy at large, existed in submarine warfare, we would have 
gone over to see if we could rescue any of the wounded, but it 
was a U-boat and we simply made sure that there was nothing 
left of the craft. 

"About where she went down, a quantity of gas and air 
bubbles were rising, and the dirty patch of oil was once more 
in evidence. That was a pretty certain sign the career of one 
U-boat was at an end, for the sea must have been pouring into 
her, and even though all her crew did not drown, once the salt 
water reached the storage batteries, the chloride would do the 
work. 

WERE TAKING NO CHANCES. 

"But we are taking no chances. We circle round and 
round the spot and drop depth bombs — deadly machines. 
These are powerful explosives which are set so they will de- 
tonate at a certain depth. We first sounded the bottom and 
then set our bombs for ten fathoms. Suddenly I hear a cry 
from the boat behind us. One of the crew reaches out, grabs 
the collar of a man who has just dropped a depth bomb over 
the stern and yanks him unceremoniously into the cockpit. At 
a glance I see what has happened. 

"The engineer has stalled his motor — just as the bomb 
was let go. It sinks slowly, and there is a slight momentum 
left in the submarine-chaser. We hold our breath and watch 
in suspense, expecting any second to see our comrades hurled 
into the air among a mushroom of water and splinters. 

"There is no way to help them. Suddenly there is a muf- 
fled roar, a column of water rises to what seems a hundred feet, 
and falls back, drenching every one who is near it. But our 



92 THWARTING THE U-BOAT. 

comrades are unhurt. The momentum of their boat has car- 
ried them just far enough to save them from being blown to 
atoms. That is the second narrow escape for our little squad- 
ron in this chase after a single submarine. 

"But our work is done. There is no doubt now about the 
fate of the U-boat. It is not necessary for one of the depth 
bombs actually to come in contact with the submerged craft 
to destroy it. When under water, a submarine's rigidity is mul- 
tiplied. Its elasticity is next to nothing. An explosion as 
powerful as that of a depth bomb near it, is almost certain to 
cripple it if not destroy it. It is the same principle as that 
which kills fish in a pond when dynamite is exploded beneath 
the surface of the water. The shock is sufficient to kill the men 
in the U-boat, and so we glide along homeward, secure in the 
knowledge that even if our gunfire did not finish the enemy, 
the bombs have done the work. On the surface, we notice 
swarms of dead fish." 

THE HAWK-EYED AEROPLANE. 

The last wrinkle developed for submarine hunting was 
the aeroplane. Like a fish-hawk it can see its prey beneath the 
water by flying high in air. Another step just a bit in advance 
of aeroplane scouting for submarines is the use of a small 
dirigible for the same purpose. But the cleverest development 
of the aeroplane-submarine idea involved the use of seaplanes 
for the purpose of launching submarine torpedoes at enemy 
ships. 

Here's how this is practiced. As most folks know, the 
seaplane differs from the land-flying craft in that it rides on 
floats instead of wheels. These floats permit the seaplane to 
come to rest on the waves, and to launch itself again. Between 
these floats, which resemble a pair of broad home-made sleds, 
may be slung a torpedo. The same type of missile, this, that 
is used by the submarine and the destroyer — a long, cigar- 
shaped cylinder, operated by compressed air driving a pro- 



THWARTING THE U-BOAT. 93 

peller, and equipped with a warhead filled with guncotton. 
The torpedo is held by slings, delicately adjusted so that they 
can be released in an instant. 

The great seaplane, swinging the missile of death between, 
its giant floats, climbs the skies in search of an enemy ship. 
From a distance of miles, perhaps, the seaplane looks like a 
gull. To the observer in the plane, however, sweeping the 
horizon with his binoculars, a ship is plainly and easily seen. 

NOT TO BE OUT-DISTANCED. 

Off in the distance is spied a ship suspected of being an 
enemy transport. It isn't hard to determine — the ship can- 
not steam away from them, no matter how swift its engines. 
A seaplane can go so fast that it makes the fastest torpedo 
boat destroyer look as if it were standing still. The attacked 
transport may try to bring its anti-aircraft .guns to bear, if 
luckily it is equipped with them. Failing this, the soldiers will 
man the decks with their rifles ready. Then there is a duel of 
skill and daring between the men on the cruiser and the lone 
fighters in the seaplane. 

The seaplane must swoop sufficiently close to the water 
to release the torpedo and let it drop without damage. And 
this must be done from a sufficient distance to safeguard the 
seaplane from the vessel's guns. The superior speed and mo- 
bility of the seaplane gives it a great advantage over the ship 
attacked. 

Another of the weapons or instruments of warfare de- 
vised largely for use in destroying the evil submarine is the 
"blimp." This is nothing more nor less than a small dirigible 
balloon, hundreds of which the United States government 
started to build when it entered the war. 

The blimp is an aerial sea-scout. Its principal employ- 
ment is for observation. It is a watcher of enemy movements 
on the water. But it is also serviceable for attack, and espe- 
cially for assailing submarines. 



94 THWARTING THE U-BOAT. 

The British used blimps for the latter purpose, and to 
great advantage. The dirigible sausage-balloon, when a sub- 
marine is descried, can hover over it (as an aeroplane cannot) , 
remaining as nearly stationary as may be desired, and waiting 
for an opportunity to drop a bomb with accurate aim. 

If the submarine be under water, and its presence be- 
trayed by the peculiar surface-ripple that marks its wake, a 
bomb with a delay-action fuse can be dropped upon it, the 
projectile not exploding until it reaches a depth of fifty feet 
or so. In case the first bomb does not score a hit, there are 
others to follow, with better luck perhaps. 

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE "BLIMP." 

Thus, it will be seen that the blimp is an important aux- 
iliary of the flying-machine in the pursuit of the submarines. 
Both together, in this exciting sport, supplement the swift 
power-boats called "submarine-chasers." 

For some time the Navy Department has trained enlisted 
men and officers for this work, chiefly at a Gulf port, where 
a school — it is no war secret — of aviation and ballooning has 
been maintained. Six officers and 40 men are required for 
each coast station. 

The Navy Department adopted for the blimp a standard- 
ized pattern, with definite published specifications, in accord- 
ance with which contractors turned them out in numbers. It 
is a sausage-shaped balloon 160 feet long, with a great di- 
ameter of 31% feet, and containing, when inflated, 77,000 
cubic feet of hydrogen gas. 

The fabric of the "envelope" — that is to say, of the gas- 
bag — is coated both outside and inside with rubber. It is re- 
quired that the balloon shall not lose more than 1 per cent of its 
gas-content in 24 hours. When inflated it must be able to 
carry (including its own weight) a total of 5275 pounds. 

If the "Zeppelin" be excepted, the blimp is the most 
highly-developed and scientific heavier-than-air flying machine 



THWARTING THE U-BOAT. 95 

ever devised. It has a cruising speed of 35 miles an hour, 
but at a pinch can travel ten miles an hour faster. At the 
"cruising" rate, it carries enough gasoline to keep going for 
sixteen hours; at 45 miles, its load of "petrol" will suffice for 
ten hours. 

Even the best war balloons of a few years ago were at the 
mercy of the winds. It is not so with the blimp. Barring 
storms, it is able to navigate the air as it wishes. It can rise 
safely to an altitude of a mile and a half. To furnish fuel for 
its engine of 100 horsepower it carries, in two tanks, 100 gal- 
lons of gasoline. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE " BLIMP." 

In effect, the blimp is a combination of balloon and aero- 
plane. Like the latter, it is provided with "skids" (resembling 
sled runners and made of ash wood) , or sometimes with bicycle 
wheels, for safe landing on terra firma. When designed for 
sea scouting, floats — cylinders of waterproof fabric stuffed 
with vegetable fibre — are attached to the skids, or to the wheels, 
so that the airship, in calm weather, may be able to rest, like a 
sea bird, on the waves, if desired. 

The blimp's balloon envelope must contain two smaller 
balloons, together holding 19,250 feet of hydrogen gas. The 
idea, of course, is that if anything happens to the major bal- 
loon — puncturing by gunfire or by other mishap — the "bal- 
loonets" inside of it will keep the machine afloat. 

The wingless aeroplane is suspended from the balloon by 
cables of galvanized wire. There is a special arrangement by 
which the "pilot" — the man who steers and operates the air- 
ship — can at any time measure the pressure of hydrogen in 
the balloon, thus knowing what he has to count on in the way 
of carrying power. 

The front part of the blimp's car is occupied by the engine 
and radiator, behind which is a bulkhead of sheet steel. In 
the rear of this bulkhead sits the pilot, and behind him the 



96 THWARTING THE U-BOAT. 

"observer," who makes sketches and takes notes of anything 
important that he sees. Behind the observer are the tanks for 
fuel oil and 300 gallons of water ballast. The body of the car 
is covered with aeroplane linen, save for the engine, which is 
sheathed with sheet aluminum. 

In order to hold whatever position in the air may be de- 
sired, the blimp is equipped with two horizontal fins and three 
vertical fins. Not every blimp, that is to say, but the pattern 
approved and required of contractors by the Navy Depart- 
ment. These fins are made of wood and light steel tubing, re- 
inforced with wire, covered with aeroplane linen rubber 
painted and finished with varnish. 

THE "BLIMP" WELL EQUIPED. 

There are also two horizontal rudders and two vertical 
rudders, for steering up and down or sidewise. They work on 
ball bearings. A blimp, one should understand, is a fish in the 
ocean of air, a swimmer — just as the aeroplane is a flyer, like 
the bird. 

The blimp's "car" carries an electric storage battery to 
furnish lights. The same battery energizes a searchlight for 
night scouting. A wireless apparatus, for transmitting infor- 
mation to the shore station, is part of the equipment. 

The blimp, as already stated, is a sea scout. It is meant 
to be operated from a base on shore — which base is in constant 
communication by telegraph and wireless with the great radio 
stations that are strung all along our coasts at intervals of 200 
miles. These stations, in turn, are in communication with the 
huge wireless outfit at Arlington (across the Potomac from 
Washington) , whose "antennae," uplifted on tall steel towers, 
receive instantaneous war news from half the world. 

Thus if (just for illustration) a blimp spies a hostile sub- 
marine, the news is instantly transmitted to the Navy Depart- 
ment. The department orders its "chasers" and warplanes 
nearest to the scene to go after the undersea boat. Within a 



THWARTING THE U-BOAT. 97 

few minutes the pursuit has started, and the U-boat finds itself 
in mueh the same situation as a fox hunted by hounds. In this 
case, however, the hounds are in the air, as well as "quartering" 
the aqueous terrain. 

The United States' blimps are modeled on European pat- 
terns. But they are to have special improvements of their own. 
To make sure of their efficiency and structural correctness, 
each contractor, in offering bids to furnish them, was required 
to exhibit a model, exactly like the sausage balloons he pro- 
posed to make, but of toy size — one-thirtieth the length of the 
full-sized, completely equipped aerial sea scout. 



& r— * 



CHAPTER VI. 

THE EYES OF BATTLE. 

Aeroplanes and Airships — They Spy the Movements of Forces on Land ob 
Sea — Lead Disastrous Bomb Attacks — Valuable in " Spotting " Sub- 
mabines — The Bombabdment at Messines Bidge. 

JUST as the submarine has revolutionized warfare on the 
seas and presented new problems for the naval experts to 

solve, so the aircraft of the last decade has had its effect 
upon the operation of land forces. Probably the aeroplane 
and the dirigible balloon have had a greater influence on the 
conduct of battles and military campaigns as a whole than any 
other device utilized in connection with the war. 

It is significant, too, that just as America produced the 
first submarine, and then failed as a nation to develop it to its 
highest state of efficiency for military use, so American in- 
ventors were pioneers in the construction and successful opera- 
tion of aeroplanes, or airplanes, which were first developed to 
their greatest efficiency and utility by the French and Ger- 
mans. 

Some of the most striking events of the war centre around 
the use of the airplanes or dirigibles, and aside from the pic- 
turesqueness and thrilling atmosphere that seem to surround 
their use, the operator of the aircraft has proved himself one 
of the most valuable servants in modern warfare. He has re- 
duced the proudest cavalry to second place in the matter of 
reconnoissance, and has rendered services which have hereto- 
fore been impossible. 

The air-man sails out over the lines of battle, so far above 
the earth when necessary as to be out of range of the most 
powerful guns, and with glasses looks down upon the whole 
country. His machine, whether it be a dirigible balloon or 
airplane, is equipped with a wireless telegraph instrument with 

98 



THE EYES OF BATTLE. 99 

which he is able to send brief messages back to his own line 
or military headquarters. He can and does mark the changed 
positions of the contending forces, note the entrenchments and 
reinforcements, follow movements, and last but not least, as 
was noticeable in one of the desperate attacks upon the Ger- 
man position in June, 1917, swoop down upon the enemy, at- 
tack the lines and forces with bombs, and rain bullets upon 
them from rapid-fire guns. 

No longer can the enemy mask its heavy batteries or con- 
ceal them beneath earthen mounds, plant them in corners of the 
forests or in clumps of bushes without their being located. 
The "eyes of the sky," as the planes are now termed, can spy 
them out. And when the airman has communicated to his mili- 
tary commanders the positions of the opposing batteries, he 
acts as a director in instructing the friendly gunners in finding 
the range and cleaning out the enemy. 

THE AIR SCOUT'S USEFULNESS. 

The air scout can detect the enemy's lines of communica- 
tion and raid it with bomb attacks. Even when the land forces 
cannot reach the enemy with gunfire he can rain missiles of 
all sorts upon them. Sometimes the airman flies over the 
enemy lines and drops glittering tinsel or bright metal de- 
vices, which falling to the ground serve as marks for the artil- 
lerymen in finding the range. 

Where the cavalry scout or creeping scout of days gone 
by could never have proved successful, the airman has easily 
accomplished his purpose. He has carried messages from one 
frontier to another in hours, when it would have taken days for 
a scout on horseback or on foot to have rendered the service, 
if they could have accomplished it at all. He has eliminated 
distance. 

Trench warfare developed in the world-war in a way that 
has never before been deemed necessary or possible, but the 
miles of trenches which conceal the men from the fire of the 



100 THE EYES OF BATTLE. 

enemy are plainly visible to the airmen. And armed with 
cameras having powerful telescopic lenses they can photo- 
graph the entire scene and send to their own military head- 
quarters not mere indicated plans of the battle lines, but exact 
photographs. 

The war has shown conclusively that once the formation 
of the battle line has been decided upon it is, in a measure, a 
fixture. It may be subject to rearrangement, but this is when 
the force of battle demands, or for strategic purposes, but 
such an arrangement requires a great deal of time and much 
work. The battle fronts on the borders of France and Bel- 
gium have ranged from 100 to nearly 300 miles in length, with 
nearly 3,000,000 strung out in opposing lines along the entire 
distance. 

LIKE AN IMMENSE GRIDIRON. 

The ground has been dug up and trenched until the sur- 
face of the earth looks like an immense gridiron. The sol- 
diers almost live within the trenches and dug-outs beneath the 
ground. Telephone and telegraph wires run through the 
trenches and even railroad tracks are laid so that small engines 
go whirring through the ditches like "dinky" locomotives in a 
coal mine. 

And the "eyes in the skies" make it possible for the com- 
manders to know each other's strength and the disposition of 
the forces at all times. 

Particularly has the air scout proved valuable in enabling 
commanders to execute their final orders without grievous 
error. There is danger of possible mis judgment because of 
the great length of the firing lines. The airmen verify posi- 
tions and make last minute reports, taking minutes to perform 
services that cavalry forces or other scouting parties would 
have taken hours or days to render. 

Operated in conjunction with cavalry scouts, and motor 
and cycle squads, the airplane is a destruction-directing and 



THE EYES OF BATTLE. 101 

defensive force. And it was the large fleet of aircraft that 
aided Germany in making such rapid advance in its drive 
toward Paris in the early days of the war. The scouts recon- 
noitering in the early dawn were able to report the situation 
and give the commanders time to move their forces before the 
Belgians and French were aware of what was being done. 

Germany had probably the largest fleet of airplanes at 
the beginning of the conflict and is said to have possessed up- 
ward of 500, of various sorts, and this does not include the 
famous Zeppelins or dirigible balloons. She also had some- 
thing like two dozen factories which could turn out flying 
machines, and had been at work on the development of her air 
craft long enough to have her patterns and methods of manu- 
facture somewhat, if not entirely standardized. During the 
third year of the war it was estimated that she had more than 
quadrupled her force of flying machines. 

GERMANY'S PREPAREDNESS. 

Germany's preparedness in this as well as in other direc- 
tions was what enabled her to obtain such a tremendous ad- 
vantage in the beginning of the war. Later England and 
France concentrated on the development of aeroplane squads 
or corps, and when the United States entered the war one of 
the first detachments sent into France consisted of 100 aviators. 
How rapidly the aeroplane forces were developed is indicated 
by the statement made in the beginning of 1916 that the air 
forces of the Allies were represented by 3380 aeroplanes of 
various types and 64 dirigible balloons, while Austria and Ger- 
many had 2000 aeroplanes and 70 dirigibles. 

The dirigibles — the type of airship commonly referred to 
as Zeppelins — have the advantage over the heavier-than-air 
machines of being almost silent in their operations, while at 
the same time they can remain for a longer time suspended in 
air over a camp or battleground without being detected. The 
Zeppelin is the development of the old balloon, made, however, 



102 THE EYES OF BATTLE. 

in a conical shape with a long basket or car attached. They 
are driven by propellers similar to those used with aeroplanes, 
but as the power generated by the engines is merely used to 
drive the machines and has nothing to do with maintaining 
their position in the air, the motors do not have to be so power- 
ful. They are steered by rudders. 

Some of the largest Zeppelins which have been leading 
factors in night raids conducted by the Germans on London 
and English coast resorts are capable of maintaining a speed 
of 60 miles an hour. One of these immense Zeppelins was 
reported to have covered 1300 miles in less than forty hours, 
covering the German borders, and still keeping in touch with 
its base. The Zeppelins, because of their large size, can carry 
large quantities of bombs, wireless apparatus, signals and elec- 
tric searchlights. They can rise to a height that places them 
fairly beyond the range of the aerial guns used for fighting 
the air forces of the army. 

MANY KINDS OF BOMBS. 

The bombs used are as diversified as the crafts on which 
they are carried. The French aviators at one time dropped 
long steel billets or arrows which had swedged heads and 
sharpened points. These missiles, dropped from the height of 
a thousand feet or more, attained a velocity and force which 
made them dangerous weapons of the minor sort. 

The bombs, in the main, however, consist of jacketed 
shells containing high explosives, some of which are con- 
structed on what is called the delayed-action principle. Such 
bombs explode after penetrating the fort or object which they 
strike, instead of going off by contact. Germany is said to 
have developed some of these that were of such size and power 
as to penetrate an armored ship. As much as 50 pounds of 
explosives or chemicals is declared to have been carried in 
some of the larger ones. 

The big dirigibles mount machine guns of superior range. 



THE EYES OF BATTLE. 103 

Some of them have been armored to an extent, and to make 
them less easily detected they have been painted tints and col- 
ors to harmonize with the clouds and sky. Special kinds of 
gas have been used to fill the envelopes or bags, and instead of 
one large bag they consist of a series of bags enclosed in an 
envelope or casing, so that if a bullet would penetrate the 
envelope it would only destroy one of the gas bags, and not 
cause the whole thing to collapse. 

Besides having proved of great value in the land cam- 
paigns, the aircraft has shown itself to be one of the most ef- 
fective devices of warfare for use against the submarine, and 
all manner of naval craft. From the heavens they can see the 
submarine under the water, and as either the dirigible or the 
aeroplane can develop a speed greater than that of any battle- 
ship or cruiser, it is not difficult for it to soar over the vessel 
and drop bombs upon it. Even gas bombs have been used in 
the raids by the aircraft. 

ACCURACY THE GREAT DIFFICULTY. 

The difficulty in the use of bombs has been in accurately 
directing the death-dealing devices when the airship or aero- 
plane is in motion. To assist in this work aerial range finders 
have been devised. These are constructed on the principle of 
the finder on a camera, with graded scale markings to indi- 
cate the allowance that must be made for speed and motion. 
Complete apparatus has been built up for launching the pro- 
jectiles from the large dirigibles, and to insure the missiles 
traveling properly vanes have been attached to some of them. 

In a test made under the auspices of the French Govern- 
ment and the Aerial Club of France, a few years ago, one of 
the bomb-launching machines on an aeroplane scored eleven 
bull's-eye shots in a target ten yards in diameter, from an alti- 
tude of more than 2000 feet, while the aeroplane was going at 
a speed of more than 65 miles an hour. 

Though there has not been any widespread use of the plan 



104 THE EYES OF BATTLE. 

the air has been "mined" in an experimental way to protect 
certain sections against night raids by the airmen. Mining the 
air consists of locating small balloons over an area, each bal- 
loon being attached to the other with wires. The small bal- 
loons have attached to them explosive bombs which would 
destroy the larger aircraft if it was to run into this nest of air 
vessels in the dark. 

Reverting to the use of aircraft in naval warfare it may 
be said that to the aeroplane the relatively fast fleet is virtually 
stationary. About the only case parallel to the aeroplane look- 
ing over the hill and down on concealed enemy positions would 
be in rising above the smoke screen thrown out by destroyers. 

THE SMOKE SCREEN. 

The smoke screen, by the way, which has been used by the 
British with marked success in many instances, is an Ameri- 
can invention. The low, swift craft are equipped with special 
oil burners which throw off dense volumes of heavy smoke, 
which float low over the surface of the water, concealing the 
maneuvers of the larger boats and protecting them from the 
skill of enemy gunners. Its effectiveness, of course, is influ- 
enced by the direction and strength of the wind. Used gen- 
erously by small craft convoying a ship through a submarine 
area, it should be of great value. 

A battleship can see about as far as it can shoot, anyhow. 
Except for smoke screen, or the famous "low visibility," which 
means foggy weather or darkness, no enemy within range can 
be concealed. 

What the fleet commander wants to know is how those 
enemy vessels beyond the horizon, which may be within range 
of his guns tomorrow, the day after, or next week, may be 
distributed, and how many of them there are. This is where 
the speed of the airplane comes in. 

A machine which can travel 100 miles an hour covers a 
thousand miles in 10 hours. Locating an approaching enemy 



THE EYES OF BATTLE. 105 

fleet this distance away, it brings back the news of the approach 
in 10 hours. It takes the fleet, traveling at 15 miles an hour, 
two days and 18 hours to cover this distance. The aeroplane 
can beat it by two days and eight hours. 

But the aeroplane flying high enough to give it the widest 
practical range of vision is able to see only over a path 75 miles 
wide under the most favorable weather conditions. Haze will 
cut this down considerably. This means that for anything like 
complete scouting work a fiV* must be equipped with a large 
number of them. 

PROPORTION OF FIGHTING PLANES. 

Then, too, there must be a generous proportion of fight- 
ing planes to spread out in a very wide circle beyond the fleet. 
It will be appreciated that this circle must be a mighty wide 
one if the enemy planes be kept far enough away to prevent 
their counting the number and type of ships in the command. 
There is required also a large detail to guard against the sub- 
marines. While an aeroplane can see quite deep in the sea, 
this penetrating vision is limited to the water directly beneath 
it. It can see straight down in the water, but not off to the side 
at an angle. 

If such a thing is possible, air control at sea is more im- 
portant than over the land, and of first value is the fighting 
plane. In this connection there is an aeroplane gun which 
works well. It is a double-ender. That is, there is a breech in 
the middle, and the two ends are muzzles. In air fighting it is 
seconds and fractions of seconds that count, and the advantage 
of this gun lies in that it can be fired in opposite directions, 
thus cutting down the length of the arc through which it has 
to be swung to be brought to bear on the enemy. 

Of exceptional value to the United States navy is the 
super- American type of planes which the Curtiss factories have 
developed and which have done such wonderful service for the 
British. In this type the fuselage is entirely enclosed, built 



106 THE EYES OF BATTLE. 

with a hull much along the lines of the motorboat or hydro- 
plane. The 'plane may thus come to rest safely in the open sea. 

It weighs nearly 6000 pounds and can carry a useful load 
of more than 2000 pounds. The boat is slung well below the 
planes, eight feet below the lower one, which has a span of 66 
feet. Eight feet above this is the upper plane, which overlaps 
the lower plane by 13 feet on each side. The complete span 
of the upper plane is 92 feet. It can carry six to eight men, if 
necessary, altogether a huge, st'^'dy, dependable machine with 
two powerful motors. 

And what was done to give America the equipment of 
'planes which we needed? 

RESOURCES AT GOVERNMENT'S COMMAND. 

Fifteen aeroplane manufacturers, with a combined capi- 
tal of $30,000,000 and a total capacity of 175 machines a week, 
organized and placed all their resources at the command of the 
government. The organization provided for the interchange 
of ideas and plans and for the standardization of manufacture, 
which resulted in a material increase in output. 

One hundred and seventy-five machines a week should 
give us, in a year, 9100. And there are other conditions which 
may modify the estimate both favorably and unfavorably. 
There is, for instance, a limit to the amount of seasoned lum- 
ber available in this country of the peculiar type and quality 
needed for airplane construction. Provision must be made for 
the future in this respect. All-steel machines have been made 
and used in Europe to some extent, but no metal alloy has 
been developed which is likely to take the place of wood in 
general construction. The manufacturers developed some 
interesting things along these lines which were not given to 
the public. 

In the Spring of 1917 the fighting in the air took on an 
entirely new interest abroad, because of the German policy of 
painting their machines most grotesque patterns. They seemed 



THE EYES OF BATTLE. 107 

to have taken this idea from the old American Indian custom 
of painting their faces to frighten their opponents, or else the 
fancies of the German airmen were allowed to run riot with 
vivid color effects. 

British pilots daily brought home from over the lines new 
reports of fantastic creations encountered amid the clouds. The 
gayest feathered songsters that came north with the Spring did 
not rival the variegated hues of the harlequin birds that rose 
daily from the German airdromes. The coming of this fan- 
tastic order of things in the air was first heralded by a squadron 
of scarlet German planes. It then was noticed that some of 
the enemy machines were striped about the body like yellow- 
jackets. 

GAUDY TASTES OF AIRMEN. 

Nothing appeared too gaudy to meet the tastes of the 
enemy airmen, who seemed to have been given carte blanche 
with the paint brush. There were green planes with yellow 
noses, silver planes with gold noses, khaki-colored planes with 
greenish-gray wings, planes with red bodies, green wings and 
yellow stripes, planes with red bodies and wings of green on 
top of blue, planes with light blue bodies and red wings. Virtu- 
ally all the gaudiest machines were in red body effects, with 
every possible combination of colors for their wings. Some 
had one green wing and one white ; some had green wings tip- 
ped with various colors. 

One of the most fantastic met had a scarlet body, brown 
tail and reddish-brown wings, with white maltese crosses 
against a bright green background. One machine looked like 
a pear flying through the air. It had a pear-shaped tail and 
was painted a ruddy brown, just like a large ripe fruit. One 
of the piebald squadrons encountered was made up of white, 
red and green machines. There still were others palpably 
painted for what became known as "camouflege" purposes, 
as guns, wagons and tents often are painted to blend with the 
landscape and thus avoid detection. 



108 THE EYES OF BATTLE. 

This lavish use of paint, however, did not reduce the heavy 
daily loss inflicted on the Germans by the British flyers. But 
it must not be imagined that the Germans did not put up a 
stalwart fight. Just as their resistance was strengthened on 
land, so it was increased in the air. Just as the Germans threw 
in new divisions of infantry and new batteries of artillery to 
check the Allies' offensive, so they sent aloft hundreds of new 
machines to contest for the mastery of the air, an important 
phase of modern war. 

The manner in which the British flying corps dominated 
the air during the battle of Messines Ridge in June, 1917, and 
completely smothered the German aviation service for the time 
being is one of the most thrilling and remarkable stories of the 
entire war. 

Hundreds of British planes were well behind the German 
lines when the battle broke into its fury at dawn. They had 
stolen over during the darker intervals of the brief night when 
the moon was hidden by storm clouds. Other hundreds went 
aloft with the first faint streaks of coming day and, guided by 
the flashes of the guns, flew into the thick of the fighting. 

COMBED BY MACHINE GUNS. 

During the night British machines combed enemy railway 
stations, trains, ammunition dumps and troops coming up on 
the march. Others hovered above German airdromes and 
circled low among airplane sheds and fired hundreds of rounds 
from machine guns into them and prevented the enemy ma- 
chines from coming out. Later in the day, while the fighting 
was most intense, British airmen dropped about three tons of 
bombs on the German flying grounds as a further deterrent, 
which proved highly effective. 

In addition to shutting the German airmen out of any 
early participation in the battle, the British airplanes were in 
a large degree responsible for the fact that the Germans could 
not launch a counter attack of appreciable strength until forty 



THE EYES OF BATTLE. 109 

hours after the battle for the ridge began and every bit of 
ground desired by the British in this particular operation had 
been taken and secured. 

Far back of the German lines the British planes seached 
out troops in every hamlet, town and village. In several places 
they saw them gathering or marching in the main streets, 
whereupon they flew down low at times and opened a fire 
which scattered the gray-clad soldiers in all directions. All 
pilots report that their accurate fire had a most demoralizing 
effect upon the hostile troops. Convoys and ammunition and 
supply columns were attacked while on the march and the dis- 
organized men left their teams and automobiles on the roads 
while they sought shelter in nearby ditches. 

AIRPLANES ATTACK TROOPS. 

Airplanes attacked troops in the support trenches and 
sent them scurrying to the cover of their dugouts. One pilot 
made so many of these attacks that he finally ran out of ammu- 
nition, but he delivered his last stroke by letting go his signal 
rockets at a platoon of soldiers who, evidently mistaking this 
for some particularly horrible new style of war frightfulness, 
fled in all directions. 

German troops were fired upon in the more distant back 
areas as they were entraining for the front. Many of the 
enemy retreating from the British attack and hiding in shell 
holes were seen by the low-flying airmen and pelted with 
bullets. 

One British pilot patrolled a road for half an hour before 
he saw anjything to shoot at. Then a German military auto- 
mobile with three officers sitting in the back seat came along. 
The Britisher dived at them from a height of three hundred feet, 
firing at them as they came. He flew so low eventually that 
the wheels of his under carriage barely missed the automobile, 
which swerved into a ditch while going at about forty miles 
an hour and crashed into a tree. 



110 THE EYES OF BATTLE. 

This same pilot later came across an active field gun bat- 
tery and charged it, scattering the gun crew and hitting a num- 
ber of them. Still further along he attacked a column of Ger- 
mans marching in fours. The column broke when he opened 
fire, scattering to both sides of the road. At no time during 
his stay inside the German lines was this pilot more than 500 
feet from the ground. 

ON CONTACT PATROL WORK. 

Large numbers of British machines were on contact patrol 
work, flying low over the advancing lines of infantry, con- 
stantly watching their movements, their progress, any tem- 
porary reverse, any attempt to form counter-attacks and all 
the while sending detailed reports back to corps and army 
headquarters. 

Of the fourteen planes lost during the day of the battle, 
a majority were those contact machines. They had to fly 
through a frightful storm of their own as well as the enemy's 
artillery fire, and they succumbed to chance blows from these 
exploding missiles. 

Late on the day of the battle, when the enemy machines 
had finally arrived from more distant airdromes, there was 
some good fighting in the air, some of it at close quarters with 
collisions barely avoided. Twenty enemy machines were ac- 
counted for in the fighting, some flopping about until they 
broke up in the air and others being driven down on their noses 
in yellow buttercup fields so far back of the fighting line that 
no shell had ever marred the symmetry of the landscape. 

Some of the most marvelous work was done by artillery 
airships. One squadron of these alone, acting with several 
batteries of British heavies, succeeded in silencing seventy-two 
German batteries before six o'clock on the morning of the 
attack which began at 3.10 o'clock in the morning. These 
planes also directed the firing on the enemy's guns en route 
to the front, some of the big weapons being drawn by cater- 



THE EYES OF BATTLE. Ill 

pillar tractors. Wherever a thousand or more troops were 
observed forming for possible counter-attacks the artillery 
planes directed "shoots" upon them. 

So complete was the British domination of the air along 
the front of attack that not a single one of the British artillery 
observing aeroplanes was lost during the week that the intense 
bombardment was going on. During the battle British aero- 
planes also attacked and silenced a number of enemy machine- 
gun positions. 

The growth of the aeroplane industry has developed as 
many makes of machines as there are makes of automobiles, 
but in a general way aeroplanes are divided into four classes — 
monoplanes, biplanes, triplanes and hydroplanes. About 90 
per cent of all designs are monoplanes and biplanes, and the 
types are distinguished by their single set of wings or planes 
or the double planes or wings. Both types have their advan- 
tages in use, the biplane being regarded as more stable for cer- 
tain scouting purposes than the monoplane. It can carry 
heavier weights — has greater lifting power — but is not capable 
of as great speed or as easily maneuvered. 

MACHINE ON PRACTICAL BASIS. 

The War has placed the machine on an intensely practical 
basis. The manufacturers have learned that machines con- 
structed along certain lines will travel at such and such a speed 
and have a certain lifting capacity, will rise under a particular 
speed and may be expected to do certain things under certain 
circumstances, but with all the advance which has been made 
in the construction of the air machines, the designers do not 
yet understand all the "factors" that enter into the "why" of 
the case. 

The makers have, however, succeeded in standardizing 
their machines to a degree. The story of how the aeroplane 
flies is a highly technical and scientific one, but the basic prin- 
ciple is the reaction of air and an inclined surface in motion. 



112 THE EYES OF BATTLE. 

It might be likened to a stone skipping across the surface of 
a pond, if the imagination can conceive of the water as being 
air. It is simplicity itself to drive an inclined plane against 
the air with such force that the impact will produce a lifting 
power. In raising an ordinary kite, for instance, the boy runs 
into the teeth of the wind. His kite is so attached to a string as 
to stand at an angle, and as he runs the pressure against the 
air drives the kite upward. In the aeroplane the propellers 
drive the machine into the air with such force that the planes, 
standing at an angle, guide the machine upward. 

There are innumerable problems to be solved — those of 
buoyancy, delicacy of balance and many others — but the de- 
signers themselves have not been able to determine upon a 
precise formula for their solution. It is sufficient that the 
aeroplane has reached a degree of practicability in construction 
and use which insures its permanent existence, and has given 
the military and the naval forces one of the greatest agencies 
in the world for protecting themselves and watching their 
enemies. 



CHAPTER, VII. 

WAR'S STRANGE DEVICES. 

Chemistry a Demon of Destruction — Poison Gas Bombs — Gas Masks — Hand 
Grenades — Mortars — "Tanks" — Feudal "Battering Bams" — Steel Hel- 
mets — Strange Bullets — Motor Plows — Beal Dogs of War. 

THINGS new and passing strange — thousands of them — 
have been brought into being by the great world war. 
Human minds have developed things undreamed of by 
science or fiction — things that a few years ago would have 
been considered too strange and fantastic for even the profes- 
sional romancer to weave into the tissues of his stories. 

Every known science has been called upon to produce its 
quota of new things which might be used for the destruction 
or the protection of men at war. The wonders of chemistry 
have always lent descriptive inspiration to the pen of writers, 
but mankind to get a vivid conception of the horrors of chem- 
istry has had to wait for the great world war. 

The conflict which has involved the entire world might 
almost be termed a warfare of chemists. Without their dia- 
bolical products, ranging all the way from high explosives to 
poison gases, it would have few of the characteristics of ultra- 
frightfulness that render it unique in the history of inter- 
national struggles. 

But of all the instruments of destruction used in this war, 
there is none more horrifying than the so-called "incendiary 
bomb," which sets instant fire to whatever it touches and which 
spreads flame in a manner so terrific that three or four such 
gravity-projectiles dropped from an aeroplane burned up the 
whole of a peaceful Dutch village in a few minutes. 

Now, what is the fearsome stuff with which such bombs 
are loaded? A new chemical compound? Not at all. What 
they contain is simply the mixture of two of the most harmless 

H K— 8 113 



114 WAR'S STRANGE DEVICES. 

things in the world — oxide of iron (which is simply iron rust) 
and powdered aluminum. 

When these two innocent substances are mixed together 
the result is a compound truly infernal in its potentialities for 
mischief. It is not an explosive but if set on fire it burns with 
an intensity that is positively appalling. Nothing will put it 
out ; no quantity of water has any effect upon the raging flames 
it engenders. 

This is the material used for loading incendiary bombs. 
It is ignited in such projectiles by a mercury-fulminate cap 
that sets off a fuse containing powdered magnesium — the stuff 
photographers employ for flashlights. 

THIN SHELLS OF STEEL. 

These bombs are thin shells of steel or iron — mere con- 
tainers for the mixture before described. They are so con- 
trived that the fuse is instantly ignited when they strike. 

Whereupon the shell is melted by the heat generated 
within it and a flood of fiercely burning metal is scattered in 
all directions. All of this seems rather extraordinary, and it 
is worth explaining. 

Oxygen has an affinity for iron, readily combining with 
the latter — which is the reason why iron is liable to rust. This 
rust is a chemical compound of iron and oxygen ; in other words, 
oxide of iron. But oxygen has a much greater affinity for 
aluminum. And so, when the two metals are powdered and 
mixed together and heat is applied the oxygen flies out of the 
iron rust and combines with the aluminum. 

The process is started in the bomb by the burning mag- 
nesium. And then the oxygen passes out of the iron and into 
the aluminum so rapidly that an enormously high temperature 
is developed. It runs up to 3500 or 4000 degrees Fahrenheit — 
which means, of course, a tremendous combustion. The mix- 
ture of aluminum and iron burns like so much tinder — though 
such a way of putting it is absurdly feeble. 



WAR'S STRANGE DEVICES. 115 

The present war has been conspicuously marked by rever- 
sions to ancient methods of fighting. In this line the incendiary 
bomb offers an excellent illustration. It is in effect merely an 
adaptation of an idea utilized by the Saracens — we should call 
them Turks nowadays — in their warfare with the Crusaders 
of the Middle Ages. 

DREAD INSTRUMENT OF WAR. 

The instrument of war most dreaded by the Crusaders, as 
they found it in the hands of the Turks, was the incendiary 
bomb — a projectile that flew through the air "like a fiery 
dragon" as they described it, and set fire to whatever it touched. 
Sometimes it was provided with iron barbs, by which it clung 
to buildings. 

This was one of the ways in which the Saracens employed 
the celebrated "Greek fire" — an inflammable compound that is 
understood to have been a mixture of petroleum, saltpeter and 
pitch. The chief horror of it, from the Crusaders' point of 
view, was that it was unquenchable. Mere water had no effect 
upon it. Hence they were sure that it must be of diabolical 
origin. 

But the up-to-date incendiary bomb is a great improve- 
ment on its original of the Middle Ages. The modern con- 
trivance is thoroughly scientific, and it does its destructive busi- 
ness with certainty and dispatch. 

No less effective are the gas bombs which were introduced 
by the German soldiers at Kheims, and which when exploding 
near the trenches occupied by the French and English threw 
off vapors and poisonous gases which killed or overwhelmed 
thousands of brave men. These devices used in violation of all 
rules of civilized warfare sent hundreds to the hospitals. Sev- 
enty-five victims were taken at one time from the trenches to 
the hospital at Zuydcoote, north of Dunkirk, where it was 
found that some of those who had inhaled the fumes turned 
a violet tinge. 



116 WAR'S STRANGE DEVICES. 

Altogether it was estimated that from 3000 to 5000 men 
were affected by the gas fumes in this first onslaught and at 
least 10 per cent of those who were overcome succumbed to 
the deadly fumes. Many of those who inhaled the poisons 
expectorated blood and for days afterward were racked by ter- 
rible coughing. In many cases fever developed in a few days 
ending with pneumonia. When the men were not sufficiently 
poisoned to cause death they were so affected that their use- 
fulness as soldiers was ended for all time. The poison made 
them confirmed invalids. 

INTRODUCTION OF GAS MASK. 

Naturally human ingenuity was called into play to pro- 
tect men against the poisons and the gas mask came into being. 
These were of many types. The early creations consisted 
primarily of a nose and mouth covering with a receptacle for 
inclosing a sponge or gauze soaked with a chemical which pos- 
sessed the power to neutralize the gas fumes. Such devices 
have been used by fire fighters in large cities the world over 
where the men battling to save buildings have been compelled 
to enter smoke-filled rooms and cellars. Other types which 
have proven more effective are designed after the fashion of 
the diving apparatus, and having a small tank of compressed 
oxygen with feeding tubes running to the mask. The oxygen 
combines with the contaminated airbreathed through absorbent 
cotton or sponge and provides the wearer with the proportion 
of oxygen necessary to existence. And even the horses have 
been provided with such masks. 

But to go back to bombs. All through France and Bel- 
gium, and wherever the Prussian soldiers found their way, 
there was evidence of the use of hand grenades which were 
thrown against the sides of or into buildings to set them in 
flames. Some of these devices, made of sheet metal, were in 
their action similar to the "Fourth of July torpedoes" familiar 
to every American school boy. When thrown they exploded 



WAR'S STRANGE DEVICES. 117 

throwing oil and chemicals over walls and floors. Some of 
them seem to have been loaded with bullets and were in effect 
hand shrapnel. 

Then there developed from the primary use of these nefar- 
ious weapons the recognized hand grenade, which is actually 
hand-shrapnel, plied by men at close quarters. Thousands of 
these have been thrown by the armies in their charges on the 
trenches. And then, to offset the use of these devices in the 
offensive, there came into being also the smoke bombs. These 
when exploding throw up great clouds of black smoke which 
hang over everything. 

EFFECTIVE IN A HUNDRED WAYS. 

The use of such bombs has proved effective in a hundred 
ways. They have been used to create a perfect shield of smoke 
to conceal the movements of troops, or prevent the enemy from 
finding the range with their long distance guns. Similarly 
bombs which contained burning chemicals have been used to 
hold in check the approaching enemy forces. 

Half way between the great gun and the hand grenade 
stand among war weapons the trench mortars. The first of 
these were used by the Japanese in their war with Russia. The 
Japanese mortars were mere logs hollowed out and strength- 
ened by wrappings of bamboo rope. The projectiles, fired 
from these were empty provision tins filled with high explosives, 
scraps of metal, bits of stone or whatever, in the emergency, 
could be found to fill them. 

The mortars are pitched at an angle and the projectiles 
are shot with a skyrocket effect, to land in the trenches or camp 
of the enemy. The Germans developed the idea and the per- 
fected mortars are of steel, and capable of throwing bombs 
weighing several hundred pounds. 

And then the great moving fort which has been called 
"the tank!" Those snorting, fire-spitting dragons which were 
depicted for us in childhood can scarcely bring to our mind a 



118 WAR'S STRANGE DEVICES. 

greater element of the fanciful, the horrible, and the powerful 
than the steel hulks which came into being in this war under 
the name of "tanks." 

We see them in our mind's eye spitting fire as they crossed 
No Man's Land, amid the smoke and dust of bursting shells. 
Keeping steadily on their courses they dived into huge craters 
made by exploding shells ; stretched themselves across trenches, 
brushed trees and boulders aside, and kept steadily on their 
courses. German wire entanglements were as so many pieces 
of string before their huge frames. Nothing deterred them. 
They moved forward into the face of the enemy, reaching the 
first line of German trenches. There the soulless devices sat 
complacently astride the trenches, and turning their guns along 
the ditches swept them in both directions. 

THE TANK DEFIES ALL OBSTACLES. 

The tanks which were introduced by the English, move 
along on revolving platforms, so to speak. These platforms 
enable the tank to overcome all obstacles as the caterpillar 
tread is curved up in the arc of a huge circle at the front which 
gives the vehicle its wonderful tractive powers. This large 
curvature acts as a huge wheel with a tremendously long lever- 
age equal to the radius of the circlet or the spokes of the 
imaginary wheel of the same diameter. Only that portion of 
the assumed wheel which would come in contact with the 
ground acts as the lever, and it is just this portion that is repro- 
duced in the front end of a caterpillar belt. 

Although varying in size and details, all tanks have the 
common characteristic of being divided into three main com- 
partments between the two side caterpillar frames. The first 
is the observation compartment in which the driver and his 
helper are perched high above the ground to direct the move- 
ments of the huge steel beast. 

In the middle is the ammunition room from which the guns 
carried in the two side turrets are fed. At the rear is the 



WAR'S STRANGE DEVICES. 119 

engine room. From two or four gasoline engines are used — * 
these driving the rear axle and its integral sprockets over which 
the caterpillars run. The latter run an idler pulley or sprock- 
ets at the extreme front ends and are supported by means of 
rollers attached to the upper portion of the frame on each side 
when passing over the top. This movement of the caterpillar 
belts is exactly analogous to that of the ordinary variety of 
garden insect with the same name which similarly lays down 
his own track by humping his back continuously and regard- 
less of the land surface. 

The tanks are steered by a pair of small ordinary wheels 
at the rear. These are supported in a pivot on a frame extend- 
ed from the rear. They are merely for steering, and support 
none of the weight of the tank except when bridging wide 
trenches or dips in the surface. Steering can be accomplished 
by making one caterpillar go faster than the other by manipu- 
lating clutches on the driving mechanism. 

TANK'S "CATERPILLAR" FEATURE. 

The "caterpillar" feature of the tank had its origin in the 
caterpillar belts or shoes which were first used on the great 
field guns and mortars — those tremendous weapons which 
shoot bombs and shells weighing tons and containing 500 or 
more pounds of gun-cotton or explosive which on contact is 
discharged, rending everything for yards around. 

These guns, as well as the smaller field guns, have had 
attached to them great shields of steel behind which the gun- 
ners stand, so that they are protected against the old-fashioned 
sharpshooters whose duty it was to pick off the gunners. 

The caterpillar or wheel belts on the big guns consist of 
flat blocks, or shoes, wider than the tires of the wheels. They 
are hinged and fastened together so as to form a great chain, 
and when placed on the wheels present broad surfaces to the 
ground and keep the gun carriages from sinking into the soft 
earth. With a set of tljese shoes a heavy gun can be drawn 



120 WAR'S STRANGE DEVICES. 

over soft and irregular ground, which would be almost impass- 
able where the gun is mounted on wheels of ordinary width. 

Before these belts were devised it was necessary for every 
gun crew to carry a supply of beams, jackscrews and devices 
to be used in extricating the heavy guns when they got fast in 
the mud. Now every gun has these belts which can be put on 
or detached in a few minutes. 

Paradoxically, this is the day of the big gun's greatest 
effectiveness, and the day of its greatest limitations. The war 
has taught us more in two years about gunnery and the effect 
of various types of ordnance under varying conditions than 
could have been learned in twenty years of theoretical research 
• — for actual experience proves where theoretical research 
merely gives ground on which to base an opinion. 

NATIONAL RESOURCES TO DISLODGE A MAN. 

One of the things that we have learned is that when man 
takes unto himself the humble pick and shovel and proceeds 
to dig a hole for himself in the ground, we can get him out of 
that hole only by drawing on the combined resources of a 
nation, by constructing one of the most complex and expensive 
instruments in the world, and with it hurling at man dug-in 
a projectile weighing a good part of a ton. 

The blunder, perhaps unavoidable, which stands out with 
equal emphasis among the preliminary preparations of all the 
nations engaged in the struggle was the underestimation of 
the artillery power required for the conduct of a successful 
military campaign under modern conditions of warfare. It 
was an underestimation so great that in the light of develop- 
ments it will some day prove ridiculous. 

At the opening of the war two opposed theories of artil- 
lery effectiveness were held by the combatants. The French 
swore by the medium calibre, rapid-fire, low-trajectory field 
piece. The Teutons had devoted their best efforts to the de- 
velopment of guns so big that their opponents were tempted, 



WAR'S STRANGE DEVICES. 121 

before they learned better, to regard them as too unwieldy for 
effective field service. Both were right, the French in the full 
sense and intention of the term, the Teutons by pure accident. 

It should be explained here that the word Teuton is used 
advisedly, for in reality it is to the Austrians before the Ger- 
mans that the development of the 11-inch and bigger field 
gun, with its special carriage and caterpillar-tread wheels owes 
its existence. It was Austrian guns and Austrian gunners 
that first made the heavy artillery of the Teuton armies 
famous. 

The French field piece performed all that was expected 
of it, but it was handicapped by unforeseen conditions of war- 
fare. The heavy Teuton guns performed their mission in the 
very introductory stages of the war, then failed, and later, by 
the irony of fate, proved to be the very things required when 
the unforeseeen war conditions developed. 
A WONDERFUL GUN. 

The Germans and Austrians believed that they could 
develop a big gun which could be given sufficient mobility for 
use in the field, and with commendable and methodical applica- 
tion they proceeded to do so. The theory was, first, that it 
could batter down any permanent fortifications that man could 
build, and when it was pitted against the concrete ramparts 
of Liege and Namur it blew them out of existence in a few 
hours. The Teutons had scored, and scored so heavily that 
the Allies barely escaped the fate the Germans had prepared 
for them in an overwhelming sweep on Paris. That they did 
escape this fate is no doubt in a large measure due to the fact 
that the second effectiveness claimed by the Teutons for their 
heavy ordnance failed in its full accomplishment. Used in 
open fighting, the great explosive shells hurled by these guns 
did not do the damage expected to the wide, open firing lines 
of the Allies, nor did they produce the moral effect expected. 
The great shells tore tremendous craters in the ground, from 



122 WAR'S STRANGE DEVICES- 

which the force of the explosion was expended upward in a 
sort of cone-shape, shooting above the heads of any troops in 
the vicinity except those immediately adjacent to the explo- 
sion. In the meantime the field pieces of the French, with 
their extreme mobility and rapidity of fire, were scattering 
death and destruction with their straight shrapnel fire in the 
solid formations which were so popular with the Germans in 
the early stages of the war, and which today they do not seem 
to be able to drop entirely. 

So far the French piece did all expected of it. The Ger- 
man piece had proved its ability only to blow up permanent 
fortifications, and this was nullified immediately by the action 
of the French in abandoning the concrete shelters and moving 
their own guns into newly and quickly-constructed trench forts. 

A THING UNDREAMED OF. 

But the thing that neither side had dreamed of was the 
settling down of the war on the west front into an eternal line 
of opposing trenches to face each other for years. That it did 
so was due to the monumental blunders on the part of the 
German staff in allowing itself to be outmaneuvered and beaten 
back from the gates of Paris by numerically inferior forces, and 
still further outmaneuvered in the extension of the lines north- 
ward in that famous series of flanking movements which finally 
reached the sea. 

It was their success in driving the German army to earth 
when it was stronger than they were that saved the Allies and 
gave them the breathing time required in which to further their 
preparations and train new troops, and likewise it is this same 
mode of trench warfare which has made their task so difficult 
when they have taken the offensive. 

Against ordinary trench lines, as known in the early 
stages of the war, the French field pieces were more effective 
than the heavy cannon of the Teutons, just as they had been in 
the open. Shooting in flat trajectory across the trench, and 



WAR'S STRANGE DEVICES. 123 

exploding just above it, the shrapnel scattered more death 
downward than the heavy projectile could scatter upward after 
it had buried itself in the soft earth. 

But with the continuous line of trenches stretching from 
Switzerland to the sea, with consequent impossibility of out- 
flanking, demonstrated by the Germans to their sorrow in 
repeated repulses of their drives to cut through to Calais, each 
side felt justified in replying to the artillery of the other by 
digging deeper and more permanently, with many feet of 
shelter overhead. This ended the effectiveness of shrapnel 
except for the repulse of attacks, and again the heavy guns 
swung into the position of pre-eminence. 

A SITUATION ALMOST BEYOND CONTROL. 

It was at this stage, however, that both sides realized how 
totally inadequate the supply of these heavy guns and ammuni- 
tion was to cope with the situation. While the heavy gun was 
more effective in blasting out the enemy from his dug-outs 
than the field piece, it required many times the artillery power 
which either side possessed to handle the job. 

Then commenced the race of the ammunition and gun 
factories to turn out their products by the ton where they had 
been turned out by the pound before; a race in which the 
Allies took and held the lead. 

With the greatly increased number of heavy guns it be- 
came possible to develop the famous curtain of barrage fire, 
also known as drum fire, with this type of ordnance, as well as 
with shrapnel. 

It is with this form of attack that the Allies blasted their 
way slowly but steadily through the strongest networks of 
trenches which the Germans were able to build. 

Along a given section of the front, or rather just behind 
it, the guns were placed singly or in pairs, widely scattered, 
some close to the line and some well back from it, all concealed 
as far as possible from enemy aviators. There were also many 



124 WAR'S STRANGE DEVICES. 

dummy batteries, so that if the enemy air scout saw a gun or 
group of guns, he had no way of telling whether they were 
real or imitation. 

In such an instance before the actual advance of the troops 
the fire of all these guns is concentrated along parallel lines 
to the enemy trenches, first, second and sometimes third. Each 
gun has its work mapped out for it in advance on a map cov- 
ered with tiny squares. The actual point may be well beyond 
view of the gunners. The shell is landed in its appointed 
square solely on mathematical calculation. The commander 
of each gun knows, for instance, that he must fire into this, that 
or the other square for so many minutes or hours, and exactly 
at a given minute change his fire to another source. 

, RAIN OF SHELLS LIKE STREAMS OF WATER. 

lln effect on the enemy a continuous rain of shells, com- 
parable to streams of water from hundreds of hoses is poured 
in a line right down the trench. At the same time a parallel 
line of fire is concentrated at a given distance back of the 
enemy's first trench and in front of the second, or in it. This 
means that the troops in the first line must not only take their 
bombardment without hope of retreat or escape, but that it 
is impossible to get reinforcements to them through the second 
curtain. 

When it is calculated that the first line has been destroyed 
or demoralized, the troops leap from their trenches and advance 
strictly according to schedule over the ground between the 
opposing trenches. Their arrival at the enemy's first trench 
is timed to the second, and just as they are on the verge of 
plunging into their own curtain of fire this latter is gradually 
thrown forward, forming a screen between the newly captured 
trench and the enemy's second line. This means two curtains 
of fire through which the enemy would have to advance to coun- 
ter-attack. 

Time is given to rout out what remains of the enemy from 



WAR'S STRANGE DEVICES. 125 

the first line dug-outs, and then the troops advance again. In 
the meantime the curtain of fire has preceded them as before, 
moving up to the line of drum fire which has been playing on 
the second line of trenches or just in front of it. If any of the 
enemy have attempted to flee before the attack from the first 
line they are caught between these two barrages which are 
gradually brought together. 

When the first and second lines of fire have been brought 
together they are poured with redoubled fury into the second 
line of the enemy trenches, and then moved forward again just 
as the advancing troops reach this line. 

DEPENDING ON LOCAL CONDITIONS. 

The performance is made continuous so far as possible 
under the conditions peculiar to the given section in which the 
attack is being made. Sometimes it is possible to advance over 
three, four or five trenches in a single attack. At others it is as 
much as can be accomplished to capture one, which must be 
consolidated before further advance is made. It depends on 
the strength of the trenches, the nature of the ground, the dis- 
tance apart that they are, and, of course, the amount of artil- 
lery fire which the enemy is able to concentrate in return. 

When a sufficient advance has been made, it also becomes 
necessary to suspend operations for a time while the guns 
behind the lines are moved forward to new positions. 

This is always the period of the counter-attack in force by 
the enemy, who seizes the opportunity when a certain propor- 
tion of the artillery is unable to fire because it is being moved. 
And it is during this period that the infantry have to do their 
hardest fighting, which consists, not in making the advance 
over no-man's land to the enemy trench, but in holding that 
trench afterward when the bringing up of their own artillery 
behind them to more advanced positions robs them of some of 
the support of the drum fire. 

Still another factor of delay at this period is the time 



126 WAR'S STRANGE DEVICES. 

required by the air scouts to find the rearranged positions of 
the enemy guns after the advance, for these must be taken 
care of also before a new advance can be made. 

An explanation of this form of attack shows why news 
dispatches have told first of an advance of the British, followed 
by a period of quiet, during which an attack by the French in 
some other section of the line was in progress. Then suddenly 
the scene of action switched back to the British lines again while 
the French were consolidating their new positions preparatory 
to pushing the general advance a step farther. 
GERMAN EQUIVOCATION. 

It also explains just what has happened when the Ger- 
mans state that the "enemy penetrated our first trenches in a 
small sector, but his attack broke down before our second line." 
When the next attack is ready, of course, the former second 
German line is referred to as the "first," and so, on paper, as 
far as the uninitiated are concerned, the German publicity 
office is able to build up a continuous series of enemy attacks 
which "break down," and somehow never, never "penetrate our 
invincible line." Actually an advance of this nature is 
extremely slow, but it is sure, and it is made at the expense of 
tons upon tons of ammunition rather than at the expense of 
lives, for ammunition can be made faster than soldiers. 

Even the old battering ram of feudal times with which the 
ancestors of Kaiser William used to knock down the castles 
of the baron robbers has been approximated by his warring 
tribes. With the retreat of the German troops from Flanders 
the Allied forces found crude battering rams such as have been 
shown in the stirring "movies" when the ancient warriors 
stormed the gates of the city. 

One of such devices was in the form of an upright frame 
made of heavy timbers. An immense log was suspended from 
the cross-piece by a heavy chain. An iron band circled one end 
of the log which was used for battering purposes and at the 



WAR'S STRANGE DEVICES. 127 

opposite end were handles, used by the operators in their 
nefarious work. The ram was used to batter in the doors of 
houses which had been locked or barricaded against the Ger- 
man soldiers. In their most destructive moods, it is charged 
that they used these devices to destroy the standing walls of 
houses and cottages after they had been gutted by fire. The 
Germans would not permit even so much as a wall to stancf 
which might be used by the poor peasant in rehabilitating him- 
self and building a new home. 

NEW METHOD OF WARFARE. 

The new method of warfare, with men working in trenches 
and dug-outs and millions of shells breaking over head, while 
missiles rain all about, necessitated the development of some 
device to protect the heads of the fighters. Therefore the steel 
helmet. 

It has been shown that, due to trench warfare, about 
seventy-five per cent of the wounded on the western front had 
been hit with shrapnel or pieces of shell traveling at a low 
velocity and therefore had torn wounds and in many cases 
smashed bones. About three per cent of the wounds were in 
the head and about fifteen per cent in the face or neck. This 
led to the adoption by the French of a steel helmet called 
after its inventor, Adrian. The helmets were first used in 
May, 1915. That their use is justified is shown by statistics. 
Among fifty-five cases of head wounds, forty-two happened 
to soldiers without helmets. 

Twenty-three of these had fractured skulls, while the 
remaining nineteen had bad scalp wounds. Of the thirteen who 
wore helmets, not one had a skull fracture. Five had slight 
wounds only, while none of those who had worn a helmet died. 
Quite a number of those who had not did. 

In the Academy of Medicine Dr. Koussey brought up 
the point that due to the helmet the number of cases of 
sudden death from wounds in the head had been so decreased 



128 WAK'S STRANGE DEVICES. 

that the number of wounded with head injuries treated in the 
hospitals had materially increased. 

The French helmet proved such a success that Belgium, 
Serbia, Russia and Roumania equipped their troops with the 
same model. The French helmet has a bursting bomb as insig- 
nia on its front and is light blue or khaki color, depending on 
whether it is worn by the metropolitan, the French home army 
or the French colonial army. 

THE BELGIAN HELMET. 

The Belgian helmet is khaki-colored, with the Belgian lion 
on the front; the Italian, greenish blue, with no insignia; the 
Serbian, khaki-colored, with the Serbian coat of arms; the 
Russian, khaki-colored, with the Russian coat of arms, and 
the Roumanian, blue-gray, with the Roumanian coat of arms. 

The French have made more than 12,000,000 helmets, 
using about 12,000 tons of steel. In other words, a ton of 
steel will make 1,000 helmets. The British also equipped their 
troops with a steel helmet, which has no ridge running from 
front to rear, as has the Adrian, no decorations, and a rather 
wide brim, which runs all the way round, lit is of a khaki 
color. 

The Germans issued to a certain number of their men, 
generally those most exposed in trench fighting, a steel helmet 
considerably heavier than any of the allied helmets. It has a 
much higher crown, and comes down more over the eyes and 
the sides and back of the head. 

All these helmets are supported by means of a leather 
skull cap inside, which fitting closely to the head, distributes 
the weight over the whole of the skull, instead of simply 
around the edge of it. as is the case with ordinary headgear. 

Of course, these helmets will not protect against high 
velocity projectiles. However, as they do protect the wearer 
from low velocity projectiles, and as these are, because of 



WAR'S STRANGE DEVICES. 129 

infection, often as fatal as severe wounds, it can easily be seen 
how much good has been accomplished. 

A French writer in La Nature shows that 332 out of 479 
abnormal wounds were caused by shrapnel and pieces of shell 
having a low velocity. 

In 13 out of 15 cases of lung wounds, the projectiles did 
not have velocity enough to completely traverse the body and 
come out. 

In 71 cases of joint wounds, 66 were due to low velocity 
shrapnel and only 5 to high velocity bullets. Practically every 
one of these wounds could have been prevented by breast and 
body pieces and knee and elbow caps of armor. 

LOW VELOCITY MOST EFFECTIVE. 

As for every man who afterward dies from a wound made 
by a high velocity bullet there are about ten who die from 
wounds made by the low velocity shrapnel and shell frag- 
ments, the importance is seen of protection against these low 
velocity wounds if it can be had. 

The wearing of armor means the lessening of the mobility 
of the soldier. In the open field lessening of mobility means a 
decrease in efficiency, which cannot be tolerated. However, in 
trench warfare the mobility of the individual does not count 
for so much, as even during an attack he does not have to go 
far, and generally does it at a walk in the rear of the barrage 
fire of his own artillery. 

Efficiency in warfare, as indicated by the keeping of such 
records, has set the brains of the world at work, and armor is 
used to a limited degree for the protection of men in greatly 
exposed fronts or open positions. 

The Japanese in modern times were first to resort to the 
forerunner of armor. They used shields of steel and in the 
siege of Port Arthur such shields were strapped to the front 
of the body. The Germans in the charges have frequently 
used double shields, advancing in groups of four behind a steel 

H R— 9 



130 WAR'S STRANGE DEVICES. 

protector carried by two men, leaving the other two free to 
fire at the enemy through port holes in the armor shields. 

None of the armors has, however, proved its resistance to 
the high velocity bullets which the powerful field guns rain 
against it. Experiments are being made continuously along 
these lines, and Guy Otis Brewster, of New Jersey, has devel- 
oped a bullet-proof jacket and headgear which it is said ap- 
proximates perfection. 

In the presence of ordinance officers from the Picatinny 
Arsenal he invited an expert military marksman to fire at him 
from a distance of 60 yards. A Springfield rifle was used, 
with regulation ammunition. The steel bullet had a velocity of 
2740 feet a second. Only one shot was fired, but it failed to 
penetrate the armor. 

COMPOSITION A SECRET. 
The composition of the latter is a secret, beyond the fact 
that it consists in part of steel. Jacket and headgear weigh 
30 pounds ; but the material is so flexible that the soldier wear- 
ing such an outfit can kneel, lie down, rise and run, charge from 
the trenches, use the bayonet, or throw hand grenades, without 
impediment to his movements. 

It has been denied that dum-dum bullets, placed under ban 
by all civilized nations, have been used by the Germans, but 
there is no doubt that explosive bullets have been used. The 
report of the Belgian Commission, which investigated the hor- 
rors when the Germans first invaded King Albert's country, 
contains testimony which proves conclusively that such missiles 
were used. These bullets were, in effect, small shells contain- 
ing an explosive chemical which was set off by contact. Pho- 
tographs taken of wounds show the effect which these bullets 
produced. 

More than that, the Russians charged that along the north- 
ern frontier the Germans fired glass bullets, although there is 
nothing to sustain the belief that such missiles were generally 



WAR'S STRANGE DEVICES. 131 

used. The dum-dum bullet is a soft-nosed missile which, when 
it strikes a bone, flattens out and splatters, creating a jagged 
wound which it is almost impossible to treat or heal. The Ger- 
mans, in ordinary, use a steel jacketed bullet which possesses 
high penetrative powers, while the French at the beginning of 
the war were using the ordinary lead bullet. 
AN AMERICAN BULLET. 

Among the recent developments is a bullet which had its 
origin in one of the United States arsenals for manufacturing 
ammunition. This is a steel bullet covered with lead. The 
effect of such a combination on the penetrating quality of the 
bullet may be readily understood by anyone who has ever tried 
the experiment of driving an ordinary needle into a board 
through a cork. If the cork is placed on the board and the 
needle pressed down through the cork until it touches the board, 
a powerful blow from a hammer will force the needle into the 
board without breaking. In the application of this principle 
to the manufacture of the bullet, experiments proved that the 
soft lead acted as a guide or sustainer which permitted the inner 
steel to penetrate without deviation. 

And just as these oddities of warfare have been created 
to meet arising situations, others have been created to care for 
the sick and injured — those who have fallen victims of the 
agencies of destruction. Who ever heard of a sand sled ? 

Such sleds have been used effectively on the Eastern fronts 
to carry wounded soldiers to the hospitals. They are long, 
staunchly constructed sleds similar to those used on the farms 
in America for hauling plows, cultivators and other agricul- 
tural implements across the fields which have been furrowed. 

The sleds have broad runners which do not sink into the 
sands and can be drawn easily. In winter these same sleds 
have served to haul the wounded and sick over miles of snow 
and ice on the Russian frontier. 

Then, though it is not a weapon of offense, there is the 



132 WAR'S STRANGE DEVICES. 

tractor plow which works at night. It is a war device to the 
extent that as England's need for food has been great and con- 
stant the tractor plow has been used to solve the problem of 
working the ground. On the estate of Sir Arthur Lee, the 
director-general of food production in England, great agricul- 
tural motors equipped with acetylene searchlights were kept 
at work in the fields day and night. 

Dogs too have been ushered into the arena. No longer 
may the old English expression, "Let Slip the Dogs of War," 
be regarded as a mere figure of speech. The war dogs, and par- 
ticularly the animals used by the Red Cross on the battlefields, 
have assumed a regular status in the armies of the world. In 
the European armies are thousands of dogs which have been 
trained to act as messengers or spies, or to seek out on the bat- 
tlefields the wounded. The Germans use a canine commonly 
known as "Boxers." These animals are a cross between the 
German mastiff and the English bulldog, and on the fields of 
Europe they have proved to be "kings" among the Red Cross 
dogs. The animals are first taught to distinguish between the 
uniforms of the soldiers of their own country and those of the 
enemy. Then they learn that the principal business in life for 
them is to find and aid wounded soldiers. 

The animals are trained to search without barking and to 
return to headquarters and urge their trainers to follow them 
with stretcher bearers. Sometimes the dogs bring back such 
an article as a cap, tobacco pouch or handkerchief. The dogs 
of the Red Cross carry on their collars a pouch containing a 
first aid kit, by means of which a wounded soldier may staunch 
the flow of blood or help himself until assistance arrives. 

It is reported that one of these dogs rescued fifty men on 
the Somme battlefield in France. The animal known as Filax 
of Lewanno, is a typical German sheepdog. Such dogs weigh 
from 50 to 65 pounds and are very powerful, but the Irish ter- 
riers and Airedales have also been trained to do effective work, 
as have the Great Danes and St. Bernards. 



CHAPTER Vlix 

WONDERFUL WAR WEAPONS. 

The Terrible Bapid-fire Gun — Armored Automobiles and Automobile 
Artillery — Howitzers — Mounted Forts — Armored Trains— Observa- 
tion Towers — Wireless Apparatus — The Army Pantry. 

IT is a long step from the old, smooth bore, flintlock rifle of 
the Revolutionary days to the modern magazine gun, with 
its long-pointed cartridges ; and it is almost as great a step 
from the crude iron cannons and smooth bore mortars of the 
Civil "War, with their canister and grape shot, down to the 
huge, 42 centimeter guns which have boomed their way through 
France and Belgium. 

The patriotic citizen who is unfitted for military service 
no longer sits at home and aids the armed forces of his country 
by melting pewter spoons into bullets, or cutting patches of 
cloth to serve as wads to pack down into the muzzle of guns. 
The powder horn and the bullet mould are devices of the past. 
The whole world working in the old-fashioned way could not 
have in the course of the "war-of -nations" made sufficient bul- 
lets to supply the forces for a single week. 

Those who must sacrifice in the stress of war now turn 
their silverware and precious metals into nuggets that may be 
sold to produce revenue, so that the armed forces may pur- 
chase the machine-made cartridges and weapons required to 
fight the enemy. 

Modern warfare has developed the climax in armament 
and the world has learned more within the last few years about 
the devilish instruments of destruction which human ingenuity 
has devised than was known in all the ages before. Since Ger- 
many and Austria were the first into action — actually precipi- 
tated the great conflict — and as by their years of preparation 
they were ready for the emergency, it best serves the purposes 

of those who seek enlightenment on the subject of armaments 

133 



134 WONDERFUL WAR WEAPONS. 

and weapons to deal with the equipment of the Teuton forces. 
Other nations — England, France and the United States 
in particular — have, in some directions, surpassed the Germans 
in developing efficient weapons, but in the main, when Germany 
plunged into the war, she had all around what was conceded to 
be the best equipment that science and mechanics could supply. 

INFANTRY AND FIELD ARTILLERY. 

While stories told of the awful havoc wrought by the Ger- 
man siege guns in reducing the forts and fortifications in 
France and Belgium are true, it is also true that the bulwark 
of the military organization is the infantry and field artillery. 
The big guns may level the forts and reduce them to powder, 
driving off the opposing forces, but the infantry must advance 
and the small arms and rapid-fire guns must keep the oppos- 
ing forces from resuming the position which they had aban- 
doned. 

The difficulty of handling the big guns has always been a 
problem, except in fortifications and at fixed points of defense, 
and it has only been within a few years that a solution of the 
trouble has been found. The solution lay in the use of tractors, 
or the tractor principle, which every person familiar with farm- 
ing and the "traction engine" can recognize. 

Germany and Austria, as in many other matters, solved 
the problem by building mortars for field service which out- 
classed the heaviest artillery of the old type, and mounting them 
on tractors. It would require a team of probably forty horses 
to pull one of the German 42-centimeter guns over the rough 
ground, and then a relay would be required every few hours. 
An immense number of horses would be required and the trans- 
portation would be slow, and not certain at best. 

Early in the war Austria sent to the front a battery of 
30-centimeter howitzers, and from the famous Krupp gun 
works there were 21 and 28-centimeter howitzers. Later came 
the 42-centimeter guns, which are classed as automobile field 



WONDEKFUL WAR WEAPONS. 135 

artillery. These are the weapons which leveled the forts at 
Liege and were used to bombard Fort Maubeuge. 

The immense howitzers, with their caterpillar wheels, are 
taken apart and transported to the scene of action in sections, 
or units. An automobile tractor carries the artillery crew and 
tools and furnishes the motive power. The second car carries 
the platform and turntable on which the gun is mounted, and 
the third hauls the barrel, or gun proper. 

THE MOVING OF HEAVY WEAPONS. 

The weapons can be moved anywhere, though they weigh 
as much as forty tons in some cases. Sometimes it is necessary 
to build special roads where fields must be crossed, but on the 
highways there is little trouble. The big howitzers are built on 
the principle of the large caliber guns used on battleships — 
that is, there is a system of recoil springs and air cushions to 
take up the shock when the gun is fired, so that the terrific 
energy, when the charge is exploded, shall not be borne by the 
breech of the gun. The howitzers can be turned in any direc- 
tion, and the gearing attached to the mounting is such that the 
barrels can be pitched at any angle. 

Such guns fire an explosive shell weighing from 500 to 
1000 pounds, and because of their form of construction — they 
have shorter barrels than the naval guns — which reduces the 
surface of the barrel subject to erosion, they are longer lived 
than the long guns. The endurance of the guns is a factor 
because it is difficult to get repairs for such great weapons on 
the field of battle. 

At the outbreak the contending forces are said to have had 
4,000 guns in the field artillery. Among the devices of inter- 
est identified with the artillery is the armored automobile, which 
has been described as the "cavalry" of motor driven artillery. 
The advent of the armored automobile in the war changed many 
features of campaigning and helped to revolutionize military 



136 WONDERFUL WAR WEAPONS. 

methods. The armored automobile is an ordinary chassis with 
a body made of chilled steel. 

Many types have been devised, including turreted auto- 
mobile, mounting one or two rapid fire guns which can be 
turned in any direction. The armored motors have high- 
powered engines, and the chassis chosen for these new instru- 
ments of war are of the heaviest types. Some have been con- 
structed especially for the purpose. One of these, used by the 
Germans, had a "barbette" top, which looked like the shell of 
a tortoise, fitted down over the chassis. Guns protruded from 
holes in the front, back and sides. 

VALUE OF ARMORED CARS. 

The armored cars have proved extremely valuable for 
scouting purposes. They can sneak through and complete 
scouting where mounted men would be detected, and besides, 
are better able to protect themselves against attack. The cars 
also possess the ability to speed away out of range of enemy 
detachments. 

The army officer, too, has taken to the armored automobile, 
and put aside his horse. You cannot kill an automobile; and 
the armor laughs at the bullets from small caliber guns. The 
officers can, with the high-speed armored cars, travel from one 
end of a line to the other and in a few hours make surveys and 
complete observations which would take days were horses used. 

Very few of the light-armored cars used by the officers are 
armed, the attache or aide of the officer carrying a rifle. Some 
of the armored cars used for scouting and by the officers have, 
in the case of Germany, been provided with sharp knives at- 
tached to the front of the machine. These are steel blades 
vertically attached to the frame and hood, and are designed to 
cut wires which the enemy may have stretched across highways 
or passages to hinder progress. 

The armored covering on some of these cars is little more 
than a steel box, with "port" holes all around. There is no 



WONDERFUL WAR WEAPONS. 137 

hood, dome or cup6la, and the men are supposed to protect 
themselves by keeping their heads below the sides of the box. 
Besides the driver, some of the cars carry two or three men, 
who are further protected against the bullets of the enemy and 
the chance missile from the sharpshooter by steel headpieces or 
helmets. 

The Belgians have a type of car of heavy design, equipped 
with huge headlights, as well as a searchlight to operate at 
night. The car has a rapid fire gun mounted in a cupola- 
formed revolving turret. In the matter of automobiles in the 
army, Italy outranked Germany at the beginning of the war. 
While Germany had Mercedes and Opel trucks, mounting five 
to seven rapid fire guns, which, with their steel armor and solid 
tire disc wheels, were actually miniature forts, the Italians had 
more formidable mounted creations of the same sort. 
ITALY'S SINGULAR POSITION. 

As a matter of fact, Italy's position in regard to motors is 
unique among the other countries in the war. Not only are the 
transportation conditions different, but the motorcar industry 
in the country is on a different basis. It is said to have been the 
only one of the countries which was able to meet the demand 
put upon it for motors without going into some other land to 
augment its supply. Italy did not buy a single American 
motor vehicle for war purposes. There are cars of foreign 
makes in the army and with the Red Cross, but these vehicles 
were in the country — purchased for private use — when the war 
broke out and were requisitioned. 

The big guns of the army are handled by motor tractors, 
95 per cent of the army mail service is motorcar service and 95 
per cent of the drinking water for the fighting forces is deliv- 
ered by motortruck. Profiting by the lessons of the other 
countries called to war, Italy had time in which to prepare for 
emergencies, and when the order for mobilizing forces was 
issued the motorcar factories were speeded up and the workers 



138 WONDERFUL WAR WEAPONS. 

were permitted to stay on the job, instead of being called out to 
fill up the ranks of the army. 

Compared with the resources of America, the Italian motor 
industry is not large ; but the product is uniform and practically 
all of the factories are conveniently located for distributing the 
machines to the army on the frontier and readily providing 
repairs and parts. The physical conditions of the country 
necessitated the use of certain types of trucks and motors and 
the dropping of some of the practices of other countries in 
motor usage. 

The rugged, irregular country, with its narrow roads, 
makes impracticable the use of trucks larger than three and 
one-half tons, and "trailers," largely employed by the French, 
German and Belgian armies, were found not satisfactory. 
What is described as the Isotta Fraschini heavy model armored 
artillery car of Italy is considered one of the most effective of 
the "motor forts" or "land cruisers" developed during the war. 

THE WHEELED FORT. 

The wheeled fort has a battery of four rapid fire guns and 
a revolving turret. Besides being full armored and turreted, 
the car has steel wheels of the disc type, and is as formidable in 
appearance as it has proven in practice. France has a type of 
the completely enclosed armored motorcar which affords its 
crew unobstructed view on all sides through lattice panels. 
Even the windshield is made on this plan. This car also has a 
revolving turret and carries a 5 -centimeter rapid fire gun and 
possesses high speed. 

All of the powers have armored automobiles, and in Ger- 
many, England and France the exigencies of conflict impelled 
the Governments to practically commandeer all of the auto- 
mobiles in the countries for war purposes. Many of these cars 
were turned into armored cars of the lighter type, and the num- 
ber of such automobiles in use runs far into the thousands. The 



WONDERFUL WAR WEAPONS. 139 

United States has not made much fuss about it, but has had 
armored cars in the regular army for several years. 

The experience gained in the campaign in Europe indi- 
cates that the military authorities believe the high-powered, 
speedy cars, clad with armor of medium weight and mounting 
one or two machine guns, are the most valuable of all the 
"sheathed" cars. They can appear i suddenly, maintain a 
withering fire for a short period and then disappear suddenly. 

As an instance of what the armored car accomplishes, it is 
recited that when the German troops sought to invade the Bel- 
gian town of Alost a detachment was sent through the streets 
in armored cars. The houses were barricaded and the Germans 
feared snipers. There were no snipers when the motorcars 
returned. More than a thousand Belgians were mowed down 
in the streets by the rapid fire guns of the armored cars. 
IMPORTANCE OF THE AUTOMOBILE. 

Evidence of how greatly the automobile is appreciated in 
its relation to the modern army service is found in the fact that 
when America entered the war and began the mobilization of 
its forces and resources, the Quartermaster at Chicago was 
ordered to obtain bids for the delivery of 35,000 motortrucks of 
one and one-half tons capacity and 35,000 trucks of three tons 
capacity. Bids were also asked on 1000 five-passenger auto- 
mobiles, 1000 runabouts, 1000 automobiles, in price 'ranging 
from $1500 to $2000, several hundred motortrucks of half, 
three-quarter and one ton capacity and 5000 motorcycles, and 
the same number of motorcycles with auxiliary passenger 
capacity, or side cars. 

The motortruck, too, in modern warfare is a shoeshop. 
The care of the feet is an important matter in the army, and 
the men, besides being provided with good footwear, must have 
that footwear kept in serviceable and comfortable condition. 
It is some job to keep the shoes of half a million or more men 
in repair, and the United States Quartermaster Department, 



140 WONDERFUL WAR WEAPONS. 

in connection with their mobilization, included in its equipment 
portable motor-power machines to nail on half soles for troops 
in garrison and campaign. Such a machine will nail on a pair 
of soles in five minutes. It weighs but 27 pounds and can be 
transported with the troops on a motorcar, and may be used 
anywhere to keep the shoes in serviceable shape until the troops 
can reach permanent camps, where new footwear can be 
provided. 

FRANCE'S TRANSPORTATION RESOURCES. 

At the outset of the war France is said to have had 100,000 
passenger cars, 25,000 motorbuses, taxicabs and motorcycles 
and 10,000 motortrucks available for military use, and was able 
to give the various departments of her military organization 
excellent transportation service. Besides this, she had squads 
of automobile aeroplane cannon, and about 84 12-centimeter 
and 15 5-centimeter Rimailho howitzers of the armored artillery 
type. Russia is said to have been weak in automobile equip- 
ment, having less than a thousand trucks in the Empire avail- 
able for military use; but this number was rapidly increased, 
upward of half a thousand having been purchased within a short 
time. 

Austria and Germany together are said to have had some- 
thing like 1500 trucks and about 20,000 passenger cars avail- 
able for army use. At the start Germany alone had 250 
armored automobiles, several score of searchlight automobiles, 
or night scout cars, probably 8000 motorcycles and more than 
500 motor-driven field guns, besides the big tractors used to 
draw the heavy howitzers. Aside from this, practically all the 
motor vehicles in the country were commandeered, numbering 
upward of 75,000. 

While they are stationary devices, the forts which were 
stormed by the Germans at Liege and Antwerp are properly 
part of the military equipment used in the war. These forts, 
known as turret forts, are described on preliminary inspection 



WONDERFUL WAR WEAPONS. 141 

as looking like a row of huge tortoise or turtle shells rising a 
few feet above the ground. The shell is, however, a shell of 
chilled steel. Through it the guns protrude and are operated 
very much like the guns on a battleship, the turret revolving. 
Under the dome are vaults and the compartments of concrete, 
containing the mechanism for moving the turrets, operating 
the guns, lifting the big shells and handling the ammunition 
generally. 

The fortifications, which at Antwerp included nine in- 
trenched sections, were regarded as almost impregnable; but 
when they were built there were no such field guns as the 
famous 42-centimeter guns which the Germans brought to the 
atack. The forts themselves had no guns larger than a 7-inch 
caliber. 

FRANCE'S ARMORED FIGHTING MACHINES. 

In the matter of movable guns, the French and Germans 
both had them mounted on armored trains. One such train 
used by the French included armored locomotive, flat cars on 
which were mounted the guns in "barbettes," or steel turrets, 
and completely protected armored cars, used to transport 
troops or detachments of men. 

A feature of the train was the observation tower. It was 
mounted upon what would ordinarily be the cab of the locomo- 
tive. Such towers have in one form or another become very 
common in the war. One type resembles the motortruck ladder 
and platform devices used by the man who repairs electric lights 
and wires in our city streets. Another is patterned after the 
hook and ladder truck of the fire department. The tower, or 
ladder, is raised after the fashion of the ladders in fighting a 
fire. A couple of soldiers turn a crank, and the ladders are 
raised to a perpendicular position and extended high into the 
air on the sliding or telescope principle. 

The German and Austrian engineers also utilize observa- 
tion ladders of a less complicated mechanical nature. In use, 



142 WONDERFUL WAR WEAPONS. 

and with a soldier perched on top of them, they remind one of 
the toy devices with which we played as children, using the 
slotted acrobats to do wonderful things atop the "ladders." 
The ladders are carried in short sections, which may be fastened 
together in a variety of ways, but a good idea of the manner in 
which the ladders are used may be obtained if you can imagine 
a letter Y made of ladders and turned upside down, with a 
soldier standing on top of it. 

THE IMPORTANCE OF OBSERVATIONS. 

And making observations is a highly important matter in 
modern warfare; more important than it was in the old days. 
The long-range guns are aimed and their fire directed by obser- 
vation and calculation. The gunner cannot see the target he 
is required to hit. His job is a mechanical one — perhaps it 
would be better to say scientific — for I:e must read mathematical 
calculations and interpret them into accurate gun action. The 
guns may be on one side of a hill and the enemy on the other, 
and they may be miles apart, yet the gunner must be able to 
get the range. His efforts are directed by observers in aero- 
planes or balloons, and the range is established by calculations, 
so that the gunner must be proficient in geometry, trigo- 
nometry and mathematics generally. 

Not all the great guns in the war when it started were 
owned by the Germans, for England had 100-ton Armstrong 
pieces which were capable of hurling a 2,200-pound projectile; 
but it was the modification of the design of the large caliber 
guns and the method of mounting them, which permitted them 
to be drawn wherever needed, that gave Germany such an 
advantage. 

Most of the big guns are in the navy — on the huge dread- 
noughts and batleships — and therefore the fortifications at 
Helgoland, which are designed to resist the bombardment of 
the heaviest naval guns, must be regarded as equipment. Hel- 
goland is the protecting fort of Germany's most vulnerable 



WONDERFUL WAR WEAPONS. 143 

point. It is the Gibraltar of Germany, and protects the 
entrance to the Kiel Canal from the North Sea. If the British 
could get past the fortifications to the Kiel Canal, it could 
establish a close-in blockade which would render Germany help- 
less in a short time. 

Helgoland is an island fortress in the North Sea, in the 
center of which is a mortar battery mounting 11-inch and 
16-inch guns, capable of puncturing the decks of the battleship 
which comes within range ; and these batteries have a range of 
from six to eight miles. The batteries are ranged in tiers, one 
above the other, to a height of almost 180 feet above the sea 
level, the heavy guns and pieces being placed below and the 
lighter ordnance in the upper tiers. The guns range from 
17.7-inch caliber down to 8.2-inch. Germany calls Helgoland 
the "fortress impregnable," and the developments of the war 
seem to indicate that the description fits. 

SMALL GUNS OF VARIED INTERESTS. 

In the smaller guns used in warfare there are many varie- 
ties of interest. The United States prior to and with their 
entrance into war, particularly during the period of the trouble 
along the Mexican border, experimented with almost every 
known make of rapid fire machine and field gun, and there 
was for a time much criticism because the government did not 
adopt for army use the Lewis gun, which was adopted by some 
of the foreign countries. 

The German army rifle carried by all the infantry is of the 
Mauser type, first introduced in 1888 and gradually improved 
until 1898. The weapon, because of the adoption of the im- 
proved model in 1898, has come to be known as the "ninety- 
eight gun." It is a quick-firing weapon, from which 20 to 30 
shots a minute may be projected by the soldier. The gun is 
universally used and has a caliber of 7.9 millimeters, which pro- 
vides for the use of the smallest bullet which will work suffi- 
cient injury on the enemy to make its use profitable. 



144 WONDERFUL WAR WEAPONS. 

Experience in the Russian-Japanese war proved to the 
military authorities that the use of a smaller caliber was not 
advisable. It was found that the smaller bullet could, and in 
many cases did, pass, through a man's body without actually 
rendering him useless, and that in a large percentage of cases — 
more than one-third — the wounded were back with their troops 
within a few months. 

In the United States all of the forces are now provided 
with standard arms or weapons. The army, the Marine Corps 
and the organized militia of the States, absorbed into the body 
proper of national troops, have the same firearms — the same 
service rifles, the same machine guns and field guns and the 
same automatic pistols. One kind of cartridge — containing a 
cylindro-conical bullet of copper-nickel, with a lead core — 
serves for all rifles and for the machine guns as well. 

OLD FLINTLOCK IN WAR. 

Many people, perhaps, will be surprised to learn that the 
Mexican war was fought mainly with the antiquated flintlock 
muskets. When the trigger was pulled the nint came down 
hard upon a piece of steel, and the resulting spark was thrown 
into the "pan," igniting a pinch of powder. The fire ran into 
the powder charge and the gun went off. Round balls were 
used, and the loading was done with the help of a ramrod. 

There were already percussion rifles in those days, but 
General Winfield Scott, who bossed the Mexican war, declared 
that he would have nothing to do with those new-fangled 
weapons. The old smooth-bore flintlock was good enough for 
him. In truth, the percussion gun of that period was not as 
reliable as might have been wished. The cap was liable to get 
wet and to fail to go off, whereas a good flint could be counted 
upon to yield a spark every time. 

It was not until 1858 that the percussion rifle, still a muz- 
zle-loader, was generally used by the United States army. The 
Springfield, which was the first breech-loader (one cartridge 



Ml y r #4g 

: i > 

■ V ■ • M : : | r ; 


A! 


- 


Ilk 4 4&k A ' -■ "'■* 1 


iffHt/tf 


■ AH h 72 



Plioto American Press Ass'n. 
THE STARS AND STRIPES IN FLOWERS. 
Miss Columbia standing beside a four by six feet American flag containing 1300 red and white 
carnations for the stripes and 900 cornflowers for the blue field. 







Pnoto American Press Ass'n. 
HEARING THE NEWS. 

A British soldier reading the latest news to the inhabitants of a village in France just evacuated 

by the Germans. 




©International Film Service 
GERMAN AEROPLANE FLYING OVER BELGIAN LINES. 
This extraordinary photograph was taken by a Belgian aviator and shows a German aeroplane 
passing directly under hismachine. The German plane was afterward disabled and brought to earth. 




Photo International Film Service. 
NEW MILITARY CAMERA. 
It pictures one square mile of territory at a height of 10,000 feet. It is equipped with telescopic 
sights, operated by a trigger and called a " gun " camera. 




©International Film Service. 
SUBMARINE CHASER IN SPEED TRIAL. 
This is one of the boats built in the United States for the Italian government. It has a speed of 
26 miles an hour and cost S20.0U0. 




©Underwood &.Underwood. 
GERMAN SUBMARINE MINELAYER. 
A prize of the British Navy, lying in the Thames off Temple Pier, London. It is one of the 
latest type. The mines can be seen In their casings on the deck near the conning tower. 




Photo American Press Ass'n. 
FOOD PREPAREDNESS AT LONG ISLAND FARM SCHOOL. 
Girls learn how to farm at the New York State Agricultural School. This photo shows a girl 
working tractor and bottom gang plow at School Farm. 




_ ©Underwood & Underwood. 

ENGLAND PLOWS BY NIGHT. 
Scene on a large farm near Wendover, where men and especially women worked day and 
mgjit preparing the land for crops. The motor tractor and acetylene gas generator enable the 
farmer to run day and night shifts so that the work goes along in the very darkest of nights. 
Every foot of land in England, no matter how historic, sacred or valuable, is utilized for the 
production of food to help toward victory. 




©Underwood & Underwood. 
ARMY OF ENGLISH WOMEN IN THE MAKING. • 
Members of the Women's Volunteer Reserve marching through London. The object of the 
Corps is to train a body of women in first-aid, cooking, signalling, riding,, marksmanship, etc. 




©American Press Ass'n. 
FEMALE CAVALRY DRILLING IN CITY STREETS. 
The American Women's League for Self-Defense, of New York, has organized a cavalry troop. 




® * eJ 
J3 fl « 





crt 


s s 




.a 


** - 


> 




o fl 


■d 


5 ® 


( ) 


at 




m 




0) 0) 


<J 


s 


■d .d 

+3 


o 

e=h 


-d 
a 

c3 


2 t» 

a * 
ps x) 

® 

■d s 


a 


o 


03 § 


a 


a 


5 u 


Ph 


a> 


< 

05 


> 


Ph O 


o 

H 


c8 


a -c 


O 

m 


oj 


2 g 


Dl, 


< 


■ss 


£ 


a 


—1 


05 




S* fl 


3 


a 


_ o 

>d 32 

3 2 


£ 


at 


s d 


to 
13 


a 


O "2 

° .a 




fl 






H 


® s ^ 

S Ph 

.5 c3 .Q 











^3 S3 O tn 

bog fHAPS-i; 

•rH H W O 2 

P.O <B Jjig 
° » >, . g 

*_. >h»h— < a> 

te ^ m 

^CB^jSfl 

S«&x>tdd 

OhPcj cbs 

►j-d'-Ssg-g 

S u 2* i 'd CB 

S o55 c3^a a 

2 h*^ CB «fl 

01 p OuW 




WHEN ON AN INSPECTION TOUR IN FRANCE. 

In this picture we see General Kitchener (at right, saluting). On extreme left is M. Millerand, the 

French War Minister, and at left of the doorway is General Joffre. 



tt . ■" «. ' 




* 


" ^$gf liHiip % *^f* ll " ,J "' 


~«^« 


E££ 


1 ' 

'4s 




HJHp' 

US ^ : ^J^I 





Photo Press Illustrating Co. 
BELGIAN REFUGEES AT THE ALEXANDRIA PALACE. 
Petrus Verhceven, with his wife and nine children, who lost everything in the hurning of 
Louvain. The mem bers of the family are seen wearing their destination labels. 




©American Press Ass'n 
SUPPLIES FOR THE ARMY. 
This photograph shows a general view of a wharf on which may be seen necessities of various kinds 
that are required for the conduct of war. 




©International Film Service. 
GUARDING INTERNED GERMAN STEAMERS. 
Photograph of one of the machine guns on board an Uncle Sam destroyer, which is keeping watch 
on the vessels at the piers in Hoboken, N. J. 




Photo International Film Service. 
STRONG MEN REQUIRED FOR THE NAVY. 
This photograph shows the examination of volunteers at the San Francisco recruiting station. 




SAILORS' KNOTS. 
The men of the U. S. S. Georgia are being taught all the different knots. This picture shows the 
officers teaching the various knots, and on the hoard shown in the foreground are all the knots used 
in the navy. 




Photo Underwood <fcUnderwood 
NOVEL WAY OF GETTING A BATH. 
French soldier, in a tub that just managed to fit, is awaiting in joyful anticipation the bath. The 
water is cold, but the soldiers have a gay time.. 




©International Film Service. 
WAITING FOR NIGHT. 
The skyrockets shown in the picture will be sent up as soon as darkness falls upon this Serbian 
trench. Dazzling lights are kept going all night between the hostile trenches. 




Photo American Press Ass'n 
OFFICIAL PHOTOGRAPH TAKEN ON THE WESTERN FRONT. 
One of the British monster guns in action. 




©American Press Ass'n. 
ARMORED MOTOR BATTERY. 
This picture represents a protected motor car that is used by the New York National Guard. 




< Photo Underwood & Underwood. 
TORPEDO STARTING ON ITS DESTRUCTIVE ^FLIGHT. 
Wonderful photograph of a torpedo leaving the tube, probably headed for an enemy craft It is not 
often that the camera catches the torpedo just barely out of the tube. 




©International Film Service. 

TORPEDO CATCHING NET. 

This photograph illustrates the new invention that it is hoped will render the torpedo harmless. 

It consists of an arrangement of heavy wire in net form supported by a steel frame. When the head 

of the torpedo hits this the rear comes out of the water and the propeller spins harmlessly in the air. 




Photo American Press Ass'n. 
BREWSTER-HELLER ARMORED PROTECTOR FOR INFANTRYMEN. 
This invention was submitted to the U. S. government with the possibility of its being accepted. 
The weight is slightly over 25 pounds and can withstand machine gun and high power rifle Are. 




©International Film Service. 
THE LEWIS MACHINE GUN. 
Col. Dooley is explaining to officers of the U. S. Marine Corps how simple it is to work it. 



WONDERFUL WAR WEAPONS. 145 

inserted at a time) came along in 1870. In 1892 it was re- 
placed by the first of our magazine rifles, the Krag, and simul- 
taneously we adopted smokeless powder, a European invention. 

The regulation United States service rifle is a great im- 
provement on the Krag. It is loaded with "clips," holding five 
cartridges each. The velocity of the bullet is greater, and the 
accuracy and rapidity of fire are superior. 

FIGHTING RANGE 800 YARDS. 

In the Mexican war the ordinary fighting range, with the 
smooth-bore flintlock, was about 250 yards. In the Civil War, 
with the percussion muzzle-loader, it was 350 to 400 yards. 
With the new service rifle, the fighting range is 700 to 800 
yards, and the infantryman is able to fire at least twenty times 
as many shots in a given number of minutes as was possible 
fifty years ago. 

The field artilleryman carries no rifle, but is provided with 
a 45-caliber automatic pistol and twenty-one cartridges. The 
men who compose the machine-gun platoons have no rifles, but 
each one of them is armed with the same sort of service pistol 
and a bolo. The latter is a weapon new to our army, adopted 
as a result of military experience in the Philppines. It is in 
effect a machete (a sugar cane chopping knife) , shortened and 
made heavier. At close quarters it is a formidable weapon. 

The bolo embodies the best principles of the various razor- 
edged fighting blades of the Filipinos, and was first adopted as 
a side arm of the Marine Corps officers. The bolo, which is 
much heavier than an ordinary sword, measures 24 inches from 
tip of handle to tip of blade, and is forged from a piece of file 
steel. 

For many years the Marine Corps, except upon dress 
occasions, has had no cutting weapon. It is not strange, there- 
fore, that many of the officers of the corps, while on duty in the 
Philippines, adopted for use in the field that weapon of the 
Moro tribesmen. 

IT R— 10 , 



146 WONDERFUL WAR WEAPONS. 

The introduction of the bolo as the field arm of the Marine 
Corps — the sword having given place to the pistol several years 
ago in this branch of the service — robs the time-tried and tradi- 
tional Mameluke saber of the corps of the distinction of being 
the only cutting weapon in the equipment of this division of the 
Government's sea fighters. 

The Mamelukes are inseparably associated with the mili- 
tary history of Egypt, the first country in which a regular mili- 
tary organization was established, and a country in which the 
fighting element was the most honored and powerful of all 
classes. This type of blade was adopted by our Marine Corps 
in 1825, and later by the officers of the Royal Horse Artillery 
of England. 

Until recently the allowance of machine guns in our army 
has been two to a regiment, but aboard four to six are used. 
AUTOMATIC MACHINE RIFLES. 

These guns are automatic machine rifles, firing ordinary 
rifle cartridges, which (in the Benet-Mercie weapon, a French 
invention which we have adopted) are supplied in brass clips of 
thirty. A small part of the gas generated by the explosion of 
the individual cartridge operates the mechanism, discharging 
the bullet, throwing out the empty shell and making ready for 
the next shot. 

A machine gun is designed to enable one man to fire the 
equivalent of a volley, or series of volleys, discharged by an 
entire platoon (one-third of a company) of infantrymen. As 
at present developed, it represents a step toward the evolution 
of a shoulder-rifle that will throw a continuous stream of 
bullets. 

The latest government rifle — the weapons of the individual 
soldiers — are manufactured at the Springfield (Mass.) Arm- 
ory, which is the government's great small-arms factory, and at 
the Rock Island (111.) Arsenal — the facilities of the latter hav- 
ing hitherto been held in reserve for emergency purposes. The 



WONDERFUL WAR WEAPONS. 147 

rifle cartridges are turned out at the Frankford Arsenal, in 
Philadelphia, and at private plants in Lowell, New Haven, 
Bridgeport and Cincinnati. These concerns and another near 
St. Louis also make the cartridges for the automatic pistols. 

At the outbreak of the world war we had 150 batteries of 
light field guns and 45 batteries of heavy artillery (four guns 
to each battery), including cannon provided for by Congress, 
and since then delivered. There was an inadequate supply of 
ammunition for the heavy guns. 

MUNITION SUPPLY AUGMENTED. 

The ammunition supply was immediately augmented and 
field guns of various calibers turned out as fast as possible, 
including 9-inch howitzers. 

A 3-inch field gun fires projectiles weighing 15 pounds, 
with a muzzle velocity of 1700 feet per second. 

A 4.7-inch field gun fires projectiles weighing 60 pounds, 
with the same velocity. 

A 6-inch howitzer fires projectiles weighing 120 pounds, 
with a muzzle velocity of 900 feet per second. 

The principal difference between the field gun and the 
howitzer is that the latter can be pointed at a high angle, to 
assail infantry protected by intrenchments, or for other pur- 
poses. 

While reference has been made to siege guns, which were 
used by the Germans in their attacks on the Belgian and 
French forts, the fact is that the large caliber mortars and 
howitzers are what wrought the havoc. 

The large caliber howitzers and mortars throw shells con- 
taining huge charges of explosives, and are more adaptable in 
their application than the ordinary siege guns or cannons. 

One novelty which had not been used up to the entrance of 
the United States into the war is a device invented by a Los 
Angeles man, which makes a "periscope gun" of any ordinary 
service piece. 



148 WONDERFUL WAR WEAPONS 

In trench warfare, as developed abroad, the periscope has 
been used by the men in the trenches to observe the movements 
of the opposing forces and watch for scouts without exposing 
themselves to the fire of "snipers" or sharpshooters, who are 
always looking for a head or mark to aim at. 

The new device comprises two mirrors attached to the gun 
by a metal frame in such manner that one mirror is above the 
range of vision and reflects the image to be fired at upon the 
other mirror below the stock or butt of the gun. The attach- 
ment enables the soldier sitting in a trench or shelter to ac- 
curately aim his gun and conveniently shoot while his head is 
kept below the safety line, or top of the parapet, or properly 
built trench. 

THE TRENCH PERISCOPE. 

With this attachment, approved by the United States 
Ordnance Department, a rifleman, from his concealed point of 
vantage, can survey a 30-foot field at 200 yards. The attach- 
ment can be removed at will and the metal bars and parts can 
be easily carried. The device adds about one and one-half 
pounds to the weight of the gun. 

In the same category with the aeroplane, the automobile, 
the submarine, the torpedo, in their effect upon the method of 
waging modern warfare are the telephone and the wireless 
telegraph. There were no telephones and no wireless instru- 
ments in the days of our own Civil War, and the stories re- 
lated of the bravery and astuteness displayed by orderlies, mes- 
sengers and scouts of those days will not be repeated. 

Today the army carries a complete telephone system and 
wonderful wireless apparatus. The commander sits in his 
headquarters and communicates with his officers in all parts of 
the field, reaching points miles distant. Wires are strung 
through trenches, along fences and wherever needed, and tele- 
phone "booths" are set up wherever it is found necessary. 
Switchboards are mounted on motor cars and encased in armor 



WONDERFUL WAR WEAPONS. 149 

plate. The "repair" wagons are motor vehicles, and lines cut 
or destroyed are quickly repaired or replaced. 

Aerial stations for the wireless are carried, and are of 
many varieties. Some of them are similar to the observation 
towers and ladders. The French army regulations provide for 
wireless service between the general staff headquarters and the 
army corps, connecting these with the heavy cavalry divisions 
and lines of communication. The wireless companies in the 
French army are made up of 10 officers and 293 men. 

Nearly all of the other nations have patterned their wire- 
less companies after the French. The company carries 302 
miles of wire and cable and about 96 sets of instruments. The 
rate of operation is more than 400 words a minute. The mast 
for the aerial station is made in sections, on the telescope plan, 
and can be erected by a trio of men in a few minutes. The 
whole outfit for a station weighs about 750 pounds and the 
range of service is about 200 miles. 

"KNAPSACK" STATIONS. 

There are, in addition to the field stations, "knapsack" 
stations, which are divided into sections so that four soldiers 
can carry an outfit. The sections weigh about 20 pounds each. 
The small station set up with this apparatus has a range of 
from 5 to 10 miles and in service replaces the orderlies and such 
visual signs and signalling, as was used before the wireless 
came into existence. Such an outfit can forward more informa- 
tion in a few minutes than a whole squadron of orderlies could 
riding at full speed. 

The aeroplanes carrying a wireless outfit can communicate 
with the field stations, and have rendered wonderful service on 
the battlefields. The cavalry also carry wireless outfits, and 
in the Allied armies the second regiment of every cavalry bri- 
gade has a wireless detachment of 4 troopers, 1 cyclist and 3 
horses, besides a wagon. There is also a division with tools and 
material for both destroying and repairing lines. 



150 WONDERFUL WAR WEAPONS. 

The French army also has automobile wireless stations. 
The automobile outfit is complete in every particular and is not 
augmented. It carries its own crew and has a traveling radius 
of several hundred miles. The car containing the station is 
completely enclosed and the walls are deadened so that the 
noise made by the apparatus may not betray the presence of the 
station to the enemy scouts. 

The practical application of portable wireless outfits to 
military usage is probably less than four years old, but the 
portables can transmit messages over a radius of 200 to 250 
miles. Expressed in technical terms, the portable stations have 
a capacity of about 200 mile wave-lengths. 

The one weakness of the wireless is that the enemy can 
purloin secrets, though adroitness in manipulation can over- 
come some of this difficulty. 

A WORD ABOUT "HEAVY ARTILLERY." 

It would not do to mention armaments and weapons with- 
out a word about the "heavy artillery" of the commissary de- 
partment, for this branch of the army service is represented by 
formidable field kitchens, which are again carried on trucks or 
motor cars. The officers' field kitchen follows the advance of 
the officers to the field of action. Some of these kitchens, par- 
ticularly those of the Kaiser and the Crown Prince in the Ger- 
man army, are described as almost luxurious. They contain 
complete equipment — range, bake-oven, pantry, ice-box, china 
closet and every device needed for preparing a complete meal. 

Supplies are hurried after the troops in motor trucks from 
stations where the supplies are delivered by rail and soups and 
sturdy meals are prepared which were lacking in the cam- 
paigns through which the soldiers of the Civil War passed. 
The pioneer mobile military field kitchen which has been the 
subject of widespread comment was developed by the German 
army. 

(It consists of a four-wheeled vehicle drawn by two horses, 



WONDERFUL WAR WEAPONS. 151 

chough motors have supplanted the horses in some cases. The 
front carriage is detachable from the rear and is actually a 
separate contrivance. On the rear truck is a 200-quart copper, 
double, or jacketed vat. Also a 70-quart coffee tank. Both 
receptacles have separate fireboxes and ash pits. One section 
carries extra rations for the men, the daily quota of provisions, 
extra rations for horses, folding canvas water pails and 
utensils. 

The actual food is cooked within the vat or caldron inside 
the water jacket, so that the heat does not come in contact with 
the food direct, thus preventing burning. The food will cook 
slowly for hours when once the water is heated, and will remain 
hot for a long time. The men can get water in an emergency 
and hot coffee is always ready for the sentries and men on 
guard duty to carry with them at night. Of course a bottle 
of the thermos type is used by these men so that they can have 
hot coffee when on the line of duty. The kitchen outfits are 
complete and so arranged that they can be rushed over rough 
ground without spilling their contents. 

Electric flash lights, batteries for setting off dynamite and 
other explosives used for blowing out trenches and other forti- 
fications, searchlights, mirror signaling devices, illuminating 
bombs, which are shot high in the air to explode and illuminate 
the field for hundreds of yards, signal bombs, and many in- 
genious contraptions never dreamed of are part of the army's 
equipment used on the battlefields of the greatest war that the 
world has ever known. 



CHAPTER IX 

THE WORLD'S ABMIES. 

The Efficient German Organization — The Landwehr and Landsturm — 
General Forms of Military Organization— The Brave French Troops — • 
The Picturesque Italian Soldiery — The Peace and War Strength — 
Available Fighting Men — Fortifications. 

NO one scoffs at the military organization which Germany 
has developed through the years — yes, almost centuries 
— of moulding and training, for Germany has proved 
herself efficient, even if egotistical and domineering. She built 
up what at the beginning of the war was recognized as the 
most powerful, most efficient and well balanced military or- 
ganization the world has ever known. And it was not an army 
in the sense that America has been taught to think of armies. 
It was a trained nation for war — a nation armed — rather than 
a small, compact fighting machine. 

The strength of the German army on October 1, 1913, 
has been given in fairly authentic reports as 790,788 men and 
157,916 horses. Of the men 30,253 were officers and 2,483 
sanitary officers. There were 104,377 non-commissioned offi- 
cers and 641,811 common soldiers. The general divisions were 
515,216 infantry and 85,593 cavalry, 126,042 artillery, and the 
rest in the general service, including the commissary and quar- 
termasters' departments, as these are known in America. The 
estimated army on a war footing is more than four times this 
number and approximates about 4,000,000, while the entire 
available force was given at probably 8,000,000. 

The infantry is designated as the main body of the army. 
The infantrymen carry the "98" gun, already referred to, 
which is an improved Mauser, and the non-commissioned offi- 
cers and ambulance drivers carry revolvers. There are several 

classes of infantrymen, a distinction being made between the 
152 



THE WORLD'S ARMIES. 153 

sharpshooters, and some of the others, variously known as 
grenadiers, musketeers and fusileers. 

The cavalry is armed with lance, saber and carbine. There 
are distinctions in this branch of the service, too, among the 
cavalry units being cuirassiers, hussars, uhlans and dragoons. 
The field artillery carries batteries of cannon and light howit- 
zer, and the drivers are armed with a sword and revolver. 
The cannoneers have a short knife or dagger as well as the 
revolver. 

The communication troops are what parallel the engineers 
in the United States army. They build the roads, put up the 
telegraph lines and telephone service, construct bridges and 
make the travel possible. 

STRENGTH OF GERMAN ARMY. 

While the full strength of the German army is given at 
4,000,000 on a war footing, the total availables from the na- 
tion's reserve is double that sum. These forces are gathered 
from three sources : the first line, with an estimated strength of 
1,750,000; the Landwehr 1,800,000, and the Landsturm 
4,500,000. 

All who enter the service pass into the Landsturm after 
19 years and remain until they are 45. The cavalry service is 
three years with the colors and four years in the army reserve. 
The horse artillery are subject to the same service, while those 
in other branches serve two years with the colors and five with 
the army reserve. The soldier passes from the army reserve 
into what is described as the Landwehr, where artillerymen and 
cavalrymen remain three years ; those of other branches of the 
military five years. The soldier passes from the first division 
or class of Landwehr to the second, where he remains until his 
39th birthday. 

The Landsturm of the first class includes those between 
the ages of 17 and 39, who have not reached the age of service, 
and those who have not been called into active service because 



154 THE WOELD'S ARMIES. 

the ranks were full and there was no room for them in the reg- 
ular army. The second class includes those who have passed 
through the other branches and whose ages are between 39 and 
45. 

There is a wide difference between the military organiza- 
tions of the different countries. Whereas the United States 
army regiment approximates 1500 men, the German army 
regiment contains almost 3000. In the German army six bat- 
talions form an infantry regiment. Two regiments form a bri- 
gade, two brigades a division, and two divisions an army corps. 
There are 10 divisions composed of 3 brigades each, but of 
course the whole organization was augmented when war broke 
out. Adding the necessary auxiliary troops, viz: an artillery 
brigade of 12 batteries composed of 6 guns each — or 4 in the 
case of the horse batteries — a regiment of cavalry of 4 squad- 
rons, an engineer battalion, sanitary troops, etc., a German 
3-brigade division at war strength numbers about 21,000, and 
an army corps — to which are further attached 4 batteries of 
howitzers and a battalion of rifles — about 43,000 combatants. 
The cavalry division is composed of 3 brigades of 2 regiments 
each and 2 or 3 batteries of horse artillery, a total of 24 squad- 
rons and 8 to 12 guns. 

In a general way it may here be interpolated that the or- 
ganization of an army is given in the military manuals as 
follows : 

INFANTRY. 

A squad is 8 men under the command of a corporal. 
A section is 16 men under the command of a sergeant. 
A platoon is from 50 to 75 men under a lieutenant. 
A company is 3 platoons, 200 to 250 men, under a captain. 
A battalion is 4 or more companies under a major. 
A regiment is 3 or more battalions under a colonel, or a 
lieutenant-colonel. 

A brigade is 2 or 3 regiments under a brigadier-general. 



THE WORLD'S ARMIES. 155 

A division is 2 or more brigades under a major-general. 

An army corps is 2 or more brigades, supplemented by 
cavalry, artillery, engineers, etc., under a major-general or 
lieutenant-general. 

CAVALRY. 

A section is 8 men under a corporal. 

A platoon is 36 to 50 men under a lieutenant, or junior 
captain. 

A troop is 3 to 4 platoons, 125 to 150 men, under a captain. 
A squadron is 3 troops under a senior captain, or a major. 
A regiment is 4 to 6 squadrons under a colonel. 
A brigade is 3 regiments under a brigadier-general. 
A division is 2 or 3 brigades under a major-general. 

ARTILLERY. 

A battery is 130 to 180 men, with 4 to 8 guns, under a 
captain. 

A group or battalion is 3 or 4 batteries under a major. 

A regiment is 3 or 4 groups (battalions) under a colonel. 

When regiments are combined into brigades, brigades into 
divisions, and divisions into army corps, cavalry, artillery, and 
certain other auxiliary troops, such as engineers, signal corps, 
aeroplane corps, etc., are joined with them in such proportions 
as has been found necessary. Every unit, from the company 
up, has its own supply and ammunition wagons, field hospitals, 
etc. 

THE UNITED STATES ARMY. 

Prior to 1915 the regular United States army was a mere 
police body as compared with the armed forces of other coun- 
tries. It was concededly highly efficient, but for the purpose of 
entering into conflict with such forces as those presented by 
Germany, France and some of the other European countries it 
was admittedly inadequate. 

The entire force consisted of 5,004 officers and 92,658 men. 
The forces were divided into 15 regiments of cavalry and 765 



156 THE WORLD'S ARMIES. 

officers and 14,148 men; 6 regiments of field artillery, with 
252 officers and 5,513 men; the coast artillery with 715 officers 
and 19,019 men, and 30 regiments of infantry, with 1,530 offi- 
cers and 35,008 men. The Philippine scouts had 182 officers 
and 5,733 men ; the Military Academy 7 officers and 6,266 men 
and the Porto Rico regiment of infantry with 32 officers and 
591 men. 

The signal corps had 106 officers and 1,472 men, and the 
engineer corps 237 officers and 1,942 men. There were also 
about 6000 recruits in the various branches of the service under 
training. 

The marine corps, under the direction of the Secretary 
of the Navy, had 346 officers and 9,921 enlisted men. 

THE REGULAR ARMY. 

The regular army was supplemented by the National 
Guards of the various States which had 7,578 regiments with 
9,103 commissioned officers and 123,105 enlisted men, or a 
total organization of 132,208. The "reserve militia," which was 
in fact little more than a name, consisted of the availables for 
service between the ages of 18 and 45 years, and estimated on 
the basis of population, numbered about 20,000,000. 

Before there was any real indication that the country 
would become actively involved in the world war steps were 
taken to reorganize and develop an efficient army, and under 
the Act which became effective on July 1, 1916, and which pro- 
vides for the establishment of basic units for the army, the War 
Department orders and regulations fixed the basis of the or- 
ganization as follows: 

Sixty-four infantry regiments, 25 cavalry regiments, 21 
regiments of artillery, a coast army corps, the brigade division, 
army corps, and army headquarters, with their detachments 
and troops. A general staff corps, adjutant general's depart- 
ment, inspector general department, judge advocate general 
department, quartermaster corps, medical department, corps 



THE WORLD'S ARMIES. 157 

of engineers, and ordnance department, signal corps, officers 
of the bureau of insular affairs, militia bureau and detached 
officers. 

The law specifies that the total armed force shall include 
the regular army, volunteer army, officers' reserve corps, en- 
listed reserve corps, and the National Guard of the various 
States, subject to call for duty within the borders of the United 
States. 

The reorganization of the army was being effected at the 
time Uncle Sam was called to fight for humanity, and only an 
approximation of the condition can be made, for about two- 
thirds of the National Guard had been taken into the regular 
service incident to the trouble with Mexico, when the Guards- 
men were summoned to the border to protect the country, and 
recruiting was proceeding in all branches of the service to bring 
all the regiments up to a war footing. 

UNITS ON WAR FOOTING. 

The various units, on a war footing, are: Infantry regi- 
ment, 1,800 men; cavalry regiment, 1,250 men; field artillery, 
light regiment, 1,150; field artillery, horse regiment, 1,150; 
field artillery, heavy regiment, 1,240; field artillery, mountain 
regiment, 1,100; engineers, pioneer battalion, 490; engineers, 
pioneer battalion, mounted, 270 ; engineers, pontoon battalion, 
500; signal troops, field battalion, 160; signal troops, field 
(cavalry) battalion, 170; signal troops, aero squadron, 90 men. 
Trains — infantry division: ammunition, 260; supply, 190; sani- 
tary, 530; engineer, 10. Cavalry: ammunition, 60; supply, 
220 ; sanitary, 300. 

A division of infantry consists of 3 brigades of infantry, 
1 cavalry regiment, 1 artillery brigade, 1 regiment of engi- 
neers, 1 field signal battalion, 1 aero squad, 1 ammunition 
train, 1 supply train, 1 engineer's train and 1 sanitary train, 
and comprises approximately 22,000 men and 7,500 horses and 
mules, and 900 vehicles, including guns. The latter figures 



158 THE WOKDD'S ARMIES. 

are, however, changed by reason of the introduction of motor 
trucks, and automobiles, there being a consequent reduction in 
the number of horses and mules and a slight increase in the 
number of men. 

A cavalry division consists of 3 cavalry brigades, 1 regi- 
ment of field artillery, 1 battalion of mounted engineers, 1 field 
signal battery, mounted; 1 aero squadron, 1 ammunition, 1 
supply, 1 engineer and 1 sanitary train. 

A brigade, in the main, consists of three regiments, the 
infantry having 5,500 men, cavalry brigade 2,500 and artillery 
brigade 2,500 men. 

Under the reorganization plan the United States army 
would have about 293,000 in the service, but with the advent of 
the country's entrance into the conflict of world powers Con- 
gress passed the Conscription bill authorizing the drafting, for 
military purposes, all young men between the ages of 21 and 31 
in the country. 

MILLIONS not in the country's service. 

The registration of those subject to call under this bill 
showed that there were about 11,000,000 men in the country, 
not in the army, navy or supporting branches, available. The 
bill designed to produce, within a year from the time of the 
signing of the law by President Wilson, of a national army of 
more than 1,000,000 trained and equipped men, backed by a 
reserve of men and supplies and by an additional 500,000 
under training. 

Meantime the State authorities were authorized to fill up 
the National Guard units and regiments to full war strength, 
so that with the regular army there would be a total of 622,954 
— 293,000 regular and 329,954 guardsmen, to be taken over by 
the War Department. This was the physical state of the army 
when the country found it necessary to ship men into France 
to assist the Allies in their fight against the German and Aus- 



THE WORLD'S ARMIES. 159 

trian forces, and General Pershing was sent to command the 
American troops. 

The United States army and all of the military branches 
are armed with the Springfield magazine rifle, which holds five 
cartridges. It shoots a pointed bullet of tin and lead and is of 
.30 inch caliber. The Colt automatic pistol is used as the serv- 
ice weapon by officers and those requiring this sort of arm. 
It is a .45 caliber pistol with a magazine holding seven cart- 
ridges, which can be fired successively by simply holding the 

trigger back. 

THE FRENCH ARMY. 

Military spirit in France has had an almost incredible 
resurrection within the past few years. The increase in the 
standing army of Germany was watched closely, and as new 
units were added to the standing army of the latter country 
France retaliated by lengthening the term of military service 
from two to three years. This accomplished practically the 
same purpose without causing a ripple of excitement, and as 
France determined to recover her lost provinces of Alsace and 
Lorraine her fight is to the limit of her endurance. 

There were, at the outbreak of war, 869,403 men in the 
National Army of France, which was composed of the Metro- 
politan army, having a total of 753,403 men, of the Colonial 
army, numbering 116,000 men. These figures do not include 
the personnel of the Gendarmerie, or military police, which 
numbered 25,000 men. 

Military service is compulsory in France and all males be- 
tween the ages of 20 and 48 years must serve three years in the 
army, the only cause for exemption being physical disability. 
Following the active service the soldier passes to the reserve 
for 11 years, after which he is seven years in the Territorial 
army and seven years in the Territorial reserve. The training 
in the active reserve consists of two periods of training and 
maneuvers which last for four weeks each, in the Territorial 



160 THE WORLD'S ARMIES. 

army one period of two weeks, and in the Territorial reserve, no 
fixed period. There are more than 2,000 reservists per bat- 
talion produced by the length of the reserve service, and when 
the troops are mobilized the active units can be easily main- 
tained at full war strength. The number available in this way 
gives enough men for each battalion and regiment in the field 
with enough men left over for routine home guard work. 

FRENCH MILITARY DIVISIONS. 

There are two infantry regiments, composed of from six 
to eight battalions, to the brigade, in the French army, with two 
brigades to a division and two divisions to an army corps. A 
field artillery regiment, consisting of nine batteries of four 
guns each, is attached to each division. With nine field and 
three howitzer batteries and six reinforcing batteries added 
under mobilization, each corps on a war footing has 144 guns. 
There is also added to every army corps in the field one cavalry 
brigade of two regiments, one cavalry battalion, engineer com- 
panies and sanitary and service troops. The cavalry divisions 
are composed of three brigades of two regiments each — to- 
gether with three batteries of horse artillery. There is in an 
army corps, when mobilized, approximately 33,000 combatants, 
and in a cavalry division 4,700 men. An aeronautical corps in 
the French army consists of 334 aeroplanes and 14 dirigibles. 

In the Reserve army at the time of mobilization there were 
two divisions in each region, corresponding to those in the active 
army. When they were mobilized the 36 reserve divisions con- 
tained virtually the same organization and strength as the 
troops of the line. There were a large number of troops for 
garrisoning the various fortresses when the regional regiments, 
engineers and foot artillery were utilized for this work. 

The Territorial army also consists of 36 divisions and 
garrison troops. When the remaining men of the Reserve and 
Territorial armies were summoned to the depots they were 
available to maintain the field army at full strength. 



THE WORLD'S ARMIES. 161 

In the French field army there were 20 army corps, a bri- 
gade consisting of 14 battalions, and 10 divisions of cavalry; 
when war was declared. When this was raised to its full war 
strength the active army numbered 1,009,000 men, the re- 
serves and depots 1,600,000, the Territorial army 818,000, 
and the Territorial Reserve 451,000, a grand total of 3,878,000 
soldiers. At this critical time, therefore, France had at her 
command about 5,000,000 trained men. 

Lebel magazine rifles of .315 inches caliber are used by the 
infantry, while the cavalry uses the Lebel carbine. The field 
piece is a rapid-fire gun of 7.5 centimeters, or 2.95 inches, of 
the model of 1907, and is provided with a shield for the pro- 
tection of the gunners. A howitzer of 12 or 15.5 centimeters 
is the type used by the French army. 

The French artillery is generally admitted to be in a class 
by itself, and the commissariat is excelled by none other. The 
infantry is most deceptive in appearance, but the ability of the 
French to march and attack has never been surpassed. 

THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 
There are 1,284,000 men in the Russian army in times of 
peace, while the war strength is 5,962,306. The young man of 
Russia is compelled to enter the army at the age of 20 years, 
the military service being compulsory and universal, terminat- 
ing at the age of 43 years. The period of service in the active 
army is three years in the case of the infantry and artillery, 
and four years in other branches of the service. The soldier 
then passes to the reserve, where he serves for 14 or 15 years, 
during which period he receives two trainings of six weeks 
each. After 18 years in the active and reserve armies he is 
transferred to the Territorial army for five years. There also 
exists a modified system of volunteers for one year who sup- 
ply the bulk of officers required for the reserve upon mobiliza- 
tion. 

The Russian army is divided into three forces, the army 
Hb— ii 



162 THE WORLD'S ARMIES. 

of the European Russia, the army of the Caucasus and the 
Asiatic army. There are 1,000 men in a Russian battalion, 
4 battalions constituting a regiment, 2 regiments a brigade 
and 2 brigades a division. 

RUSSIAN FIELD BATTERIES. 

The field batteries are composed of 8 guns, the horse bat- 
teries of 6. The ordinary army corps is made up of 2 divisions, 
a howitzer division and one battalion of sappers, and has a 
fighting strength of approximately 32,000 men. The rifle 
brigades form separate organizations of 8 battalions with 3 
batteries attached. The Cossacks, who hold their lands by 
military tenure, are liable to service for life, and provide their 
own equipment and horses. At 19 their training begins; at 21 
they enter the active regiment of their district; at 25 they go 
into what is termed the "second category" regiment, and at 29 
the "third category" regiment, followed by 5 years in the re- 
serve. After 25 years of age, their training is 3 weeks yearly. 
In European Russia the field army consists of the Imperial 
Guard and Grenadier Corps, 27 line army corps and 20 cav- 
alry divisions ; in the Caucasus of 3 army corps and 4 cavalry 
divisions. The Asiatic army is composed of Russians with a 
few Turkoman irregular horse, and is mainly stationed in East 
Siberia. Since the Russian-Japanese war these forces have 
been increased and re-organized into a strong army which, at 
the outbreak, was capable of mobilizing, together with aux- 
iliary troops, more than 200,000 men. 

The small-arm of the infantry is the "3-line" rifle of the 
1901 model. It has a magazine holding five cartridges, a 
caliber of .299 inches, a muzzle velocity of 2,035 foot seconds, 
and is sighted to 3,000 yards. The arm of the cavalry and 
Cossacks has a barrel 2% inches shorter, but uses the same 
ammunition, and is provided with a bayonet which no other 
mounted troops use. The field piece is a Krupp rapid-fire, 



THE WOK-LD'S AKMJLES. 163 

shielded gun, of the 1902 model, with a muzzle velocity of 
1,950 foot seconds, the shell weighing 13% pounds. 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARIAN ARMY. 

There are 472,716 men in the army of Austria-Hungary 
during times of peace, with a war strength of 1,360,000 sol- 
diers. Military service is universal and compulsory, begin- 
ning at the age of 19 years, and ending at the age of 43 years. 
The term of service in the common or active arm of the serv- 
ice is for two years in the case of the infantry and three years 
in the cavalry and horse artillery. 

There is a Landwehr, or first reserve, in which the term 
of service is 10 years in the infantry, and seven for the cavalry 
or horse artillery, which service is followed by that in the Land- 
sturm, or second reserve, in which the soldier serves until his 
forty-second birthday. Hungary possesses a separate and dis- 
tinct Landwehr and Landsturm, which constitute the Hun- 
garian National army. There is also a supplementary reserve 
intended to maintain the units of the common army at full 
strength. 

The Empire is divided into 16 army corps districts, each 
presumed to furnish a complete army corps of two divisions to 
the active army. Every infantry division is composed of two 
brigades of 8 battalions each, 1 artillery brigade and 10 bat- 
teries of six guns, a regiment of cavalry, and a rifle battalion. 
The army corps also contains a regiment of field artillery or 
howitzers, a pioneer battalion and a pontoon company, and 
numbers about 34,000 combatants. 

There are 6 permanent cavalry divisions, each made up of 
2 brigades — 24 squadrons, 3 batteries of horse artillery and a 
machine-gun detachment numbering about 4,000 men. It is 
estimated that the war strength is, active army, 1,360,000; 
Austrian Landwehr, 240,000 ; Hungarian Landwehr, 220,000 ; 
Landsturm, 2,000,000 and reserve of 500,000, or a grand total 
of 4,300,000. 



164 THE WORLD'S ARMIES. 

The infantry carries the Mannlicher magazine rifle, .315- 
caliber and a cavalry carbine of the same make. The field gun 
is a Krupp which uses a 14%-pound shrapnel and the field 
howitzer is a 10.5 centimeter piece which fires a 30-pound shell. 
The Hungarian cavalry is accounted fine, but the main force 
is not regarded as efficient as the German or French. 

THE ITALIAN ARMY. 

The army of Italy on a peace footing is only about 250,- 
860 men, exclusive of the troops in Africa, but the country is 
able to mobilize a large force, and some of its branches of serv- 
ice are the most efficient in the world. Service is compulsory 
and general, beginning at the age of 20 years. After two 
years in the standing army there are six years in the reserve, 
four years in what is known as the mobile militia and seven 
years in the territorial militia. 

There is compulsory training in both the reserve and the 
territorial militia, ranging from two weeks to six weeks. In 
organization each division of the army consists of 2 brigades 
composed of 2 regiments, comprising 3 battalions, together 
with a regiment of field artillery, with 5 batteries. The division 
has a war strength of 14,156 officers and men and 30 guns. 
The cavalry division comprises 2 brigades of 4 regiments and 
2 horse batteries. Each army corps has two divisions in which 
are included a regiment of field artillery, 3 heavy batteries, a 
regiment of cavalry and one of light infantry. 

There is available for army service the military police, 
known as the Carabinieri, besides the aeronautical corps, with 
half a dozen or more companies, 30 aeroplanes and a dozen 
airships. There are also the frontier troops organized for de- 
fense of the mountains, and which troops waged heroic and 
picturesque warfare in the mountain passes. There are in these 
troops 8 regiments of Alpine infantry, comprising 26 bat- 
talions, and 2 regiments of 36 mountain batteries. 

The army strength approximates 2^600,000, made up of 



THE WORLD'S ARMIES. 165 

700,000 active army, 400,000 mobile militia, which is the sec- 
ond line of defense, and the territorial militia, about 1,500,000. 
The infantry is armed with a magazine rifle of 6.5 millimeters 
caliber known as the Mannlicher Carcano, but up to the begin- 
ning of the war the territorials used a different type. 

GREAT BRITAIN'S ARMY. 

The military establishment of Great Britain consists of 
the Regular army and the Territorial army, aside from the 
Indian army and the local forces in the various colonies. These 
armies are recruited from youth between the ages of 18 and 25 
years, who are recruited by voluntary enlistment. The enlist- 
ment period is for 12 years, although it can be prolonged under 
certain circumstances to 21 years. 

Three to nine years is the period with the colors, and the 
remainder of the enlistment is with the Army Reserve. Many 
men elect to serve seven years with the colors and five with the 
reserve. Recruits are subjected to five months' training, and 
each year are called out for six weeks, supplemented by six 
days' musketry practice for the infantry. 

The Home army consists of 9,740 officers and 172,610 
men, the Army Reserve of 147,000 and the Special Reserve of 
80,120, and the Territorial army of 313,485, a total of 724,955 
men. Raised to war strength, these forces would number 29,- 
330 officers, 772,000 men and 2,072 guns, the batteries being of 
six guns, except the heavy batteries and those of the Territorial 
army, which have four. During the Boer War England put 
more than 1,000,000 men in the field. 

The United Kingdom is divided into seven "commands," 
and the London district, all of which include from two to three 
territorial divisions, and one to four territorial cavalry bri- 
gades, in addition to detachments of varying size from the 
Regular army. Two nearly full divisions are stationed at Al- 
dershot and in Ireland, one complete division in the Southern 



166 THE WORLD'S ARMIES. 

and one in the Eastern "command." There are also six aero- 
plane squadrons, each with 18 aeroplanes. 

The Lee-Enfield rifle, caliber .303, is the arm of the in- 
fantry and cavalry. In the Regular army the field artillery 
has an 18-pounder Armstrong gun, the horse artillery a 13- 
pounder, the field howitzers are 40-pounders, and the heavy 
batteries are armed with 60-pounders. 

The Territorial army was organized along the lines of the 
American militia, and could scarcely be expected to distinguish 
itself when pitted against the German regulars. 

BELGIAN ARMY PEACE FOOTING. 

The Belgian army peace footing is 3542 officers and 
'44,061 men, with a war strength estimated at from 300,000 to 
350,000. The infantry is armed with the Mauser rifle, the artil- 
lery with a shielded Krupp quick-fire piece of 7-5-centimeter 
caliber. 

In 1913 the Netherlands had in its standing army 1,543 
officers and 21,412 men and 152 guns. On a war footing it 
could probably be raised to 270,000 men. The small arm is the 
Mannlicher rifle and carbine, the field gun is the same as that 
of Belgium. 

Servia has 10 divisions, divided into 4 army corps. The 
peace footing is 160,000, and the war strength about 380,000. 
The rifle is the Mauser model of 1899, and the field piece a 
quick-firing gun of the French Schneider- Canet system. 

Bulgaria has a peace army of about 3,900 officers and 
56,000 men. It is armed with the Mannlicher magazine rifle, 
the Mannlicher carbine, the Schneider quick-fire gun and a 
light Krupp for the mountain batteries. On a war footing the 
country musters 4 army corps and 550,000 men. 

Roumania's army is about 5,460 officers and 98,000 men. 
On a war footing it has 5 army corps and 580,000 men. The 
infantry uses the Mannlicher magazine rifle and the cavalry 



THE WORLD'S ARMIES. 167 

the Mannlicher carbine. The field and horse batteries are armed 
with the Krupp quick-fire gun of the model of 1903. 

In 1912 Greece had a peace establishment of 1,952 officers 
and 23,268 men, but the recent war has caused her to augment 
them to 3 army corps, and her war footing is not far from 
250,000 men. The infantry is armed with the Mannlicher- 
Schonauer rifle of the 1903 model and the field artillery with 
Schneider- Canet quick-fire guns. 

Japan has a peace strength of 250,000 men, with a reserve 
of 1,250,000, and a total war strength of 1,500,000 men, out of 
a total available force capable of fighting of approximately 
8,239,372 men. 

SPAIN'S STANDING ARMY. 

The standing army of Spain is 132,000 iren. The reserves 
are estimated at 1,050,000, and the total war strength at 1,182,- 
000. The total available unorganized force is 2,889,197 men. 

The army of Denmark on a peace footing is 13,725 men, 
with a reserve of 71,609. The total war strength is a little more 
than '85,000 men, and the total fighting population is approxi- 
mately 470,000. 

Sweden has a peace strength in excess of 75,000 men, and 
a reserve of more than 500,000, giving an estimated war 
strength of 600,000 men. The total available unorganized 
force is about 500,000. 

Norway has a standing army a little larger than that of 
Denmark — about 18,000 men — with 90,000 reserves, giving a 
total war strength of about 110,000 men. The unorganized 
force available is about 360,000 men. 

Portugal has a peace strength of 30,000 men, with a re- 
serve of 225,000, making a total war strength of more than 
one-quarter of a million. The unorganized fighting material 
is more than 800,000. 

Turkey, which reorganized its forces within recent years, 
has a peace strength of 210,000 men, about 800,000 reserves, 



168 THE WORLD'S ARMIES. 

giving a war strength of over a million, and has a total avail- 
able unorganized force to call upon of more than 3,000,000. 

The little army of Montenegro is a permanent body of 
about 35,000 men. There are no trained reserve forces, but 
there is an available fighting population of 68,000, outside of 
the army, to call upon. 

CHINA'S MILITARY RESOURCES. 

Recent events throw some doubt on the figures regarding 
China's military resources, but the last available figures cred- 
ited the great Republic of the East with a force of 400,000 
men, augmented by 300,000 reserves. With this total war 
strength of 700,000 soldiers, estimates of the available unor- 
ganized fighting material reaches the stupendous figure of 
63,000,000. 

Brazil has a peace strength of 33,000, with more than 
500,000 reserves, with more than 4,000,000 unorganized avail- 
able material. 

As relating to the armed strength of the nations abroad, 
some reference to the system of fortifications which protect the 
various countries is interesting at this point. Following years 
— in fact, centuries — of study, Central Europe has been 
strongly fortified with a system of embattlements which have 
reached the limits of human ingenuity. 

In the east of France, along the frontier where France, 
Switzerland and Germany meet, there are the first-class fort- 
resses of Belfort, Epinal, Toul and Verdun in the first line, 
reinforced by Besancon, Dijon, Langres, Rheims, La Fere and 
Maubeuge in the second line, with smaller fortifications close 
to the German frontier at Remirement, Luneville, Nancy and 
other points. Along the Italian frontier the fortresses are situ- 
ated at Grenoble, Briancon and Nice, with Lyons in the rear. 
There are strong forts at all naval harbors, the defense of 
Paris consisting of 97 bastions, 17 old forts and 38 forts of an 



THE WORLD'S ARMIES. 169 

advanced type, the whole forming entrenched camps at Ver- 
sailles and St. Denis. 

On that line of the German frontier which faces France 
there are the fortresses of Neu-Breisach, Strassburg, Metz and 
Diedenhofen, in the first line, with Rastatt, Bitsch and Saar- 
louis in the second line, and Germershein in the rear. Situated 
opposite Luxemburg is Mainz, with Coblentz and Cologne 
.opposite Belgium and Wesel opposite Holland. 

All along the northern coast, from Wilhelmshafen to 
Memmel, the German coast is strongly fortified. Memmel is 
the pivot point of the northern and eastern frontier, the latter 
frontier being protected by Konigsberg and Allenstein, of the 
first line, and Danzig, Dirschau, Graudenz, Thorn and the Vis- 
tula Passages, of the second line. South of this point are 
Posen, Glogau and Breslau, which face Poland, while begin- 
ning at Neisse the strong defense against Austria consists of 
fortifications at Glatz, Ingolstadt and Ulm, the approaches to 
Berlin being guarded by Magdeburg, Spandau and Kustrin. 
POLISH QUADRILATERAL. 

Along the line of the Russian frontier which guard that 
country from attacks by the Germans are the fortresses of 
Libau, on the Baltic ; Kovna, Ossovets and Ust-Dvinsk, in the 
Vilna district, and in Poland there are situated Novo-Geor- 
gievsk, Warsaw and Ivangorod, on the Vistula, and Brest- 
Litovsk, on the Bug — four strongholds known as the Polish 
Quadrilateral. Guarding Petrograd are the smaller fortifica- 
tions of Kronstadt and Viborg, with Sweaborg midway down 
the Gulf of Finland near Helsingfors. Sebastopol and Kertch, 
in the Crimea, and Otchokov, near Odessa, are the fortifications 
which guard the Black Sea. 

Along the Austrian frontier are the strong embattlements 
of Cracow and Przemysl, on the road to Lemberg in Galicia. 
These forts face Poland. In Hungary there are Gyula-Feh- 
ervar and Arad, on the Maros River, and which guard the 



170 THE WORLD'S ARMIES. 

approach from the angle of Roumania. On her frontier facing 
Servia there are Alt-Orsova and Peterwardein, on the Danube, 
and Sarajevo, in Bosnia, with Temesvar and Komorn blocking 
the approach to Vienna from the southeast. On the Adriatic 
are Cattaro, on the edge of Montenegro, and the naval arsenals 
of Pola and Trieste. All the Alpine passes of the Tyrol are 
fortified, but neither Vienna nor Budapest has any defenses. 
The fortifications of Italy, aside from those on her coasts, 
extend in a line from Venice, through Verona, Mantua and 
Piacenza to Alessandria and Casale, which face the French 
frontier. 



CHAPTER X. 
THE WORLD'S NAVIES. 

Germany's Sea Strength — Great Britain's Immense War Fleet — Immense 
Fighting Craft — The United States' New Battle Cruisers — The Fastest 
and Biggest Ocean Fighting Ships — The Picturesque Marines : the 
Soldiers op the Sea. 

JUST as Germany at the outset of the war had the most 
efficient and, broadly speaking, the greatest army in the 

world, so England had the greatest navy in the world. 
As a matter of fact, Great Britain's domination of the seas was 
very largely responsible for the development of the super- 
submarine by Germany, and the putting into effect of the sub- 
marine warfare which proved so disastrous to the Allies. This 
for the reason that Germany, having sought for means to offset 
Great Britain's power and control of the seas, turned to the 
underseas craft. 

Up to the accession of Emperor William II — the Kaiser 
« — Germany's navy was little more than a joke. In 1848 the 
National Parliament voted six million thalers for the creation 
of a fleet, and some boats were constructed. But the attempts 
to weld Germany, then little more than a federation, into a 
nation having failed, the fleet was put up at auction, and actu- 
ally sold in 1852. Prussia, a separate state, had started a fleet 
of her own and purchased the German boats. 

This fleet, just before the American Civil War, consisted 
of four cruisers, carrying 28 cannon, and one cruiser having 17 
cannon, besides which there were 21 "cannon boats," carrying 
two and three cannons each. The Prussian fleet merged into 
the North German Confederation in 1867, and in turn became 
part of the fleet of the new German Empire in 1871. 

In the war with France the German fleet played no part. 
There were one or two clashes between French and German 
small boats, but that was all. Even the successful outcome of 

171 



.1-72 THE WORLD'S NAVIES. 

the war did not inspire Germany to build up a navy. Plans 
for the greater navy were first outlined about 1882, but for a 
period of seven years not a battleship was built, concentration 
being placed upon the torpedo boat. The idea of developing 
the torpedo boat fleet belong to the present Grand Admiral 
von Tirpitz, then a young officer. The fleet became the best in 
the world, but its usefulness was soon checked by the new 
inventions, searchlights, gatling guns, etc. 

Germany's fleet legislation of 1898 for the first time 
looked ahead and established rules for future building. The 
Spanish- American and the Boer wars disquieted Germany, and 
about 1900 the fleet was doubled by legislation, iln 1906 the 
campaign of submarines, torpedo boats and greater battleships 
began. Part of the program required that 12 torpedo boats be 
built each year. Additional legislation for the construction of 
cruisers and battleships was effected in 1908, and in 1912, until 
at the beginning of the war, Germany had 38 ships of the line, 
14 armored cruisers, 38 protected cruisers, 224 torpedo boats 
and 30 submarines. There were no torpedo-boat destroyers, 
the small cruisers taking their places. The naval organization 
contained 73,000 officers and men. The largest boats are the 
dreadnoughts, which are divided into several classes. One of 
the last of these built by Germany was the Derfflinger, which 
had a displacement of 28,000 tons. 

The personnel of the German navy prior to the war was 
79,197 officers and men. 

THE BRITISH NAVY. 
Because of the fact that the territory of Great Britain is 
scattered over the face of the globe and that it is necessary to 
use the highways of the sea for reaching her various posses- 
sions, the navy of that country is undoubtedly the greatest 
collection of fighting ships ever gathered together under one 
nag. 



THE WORLD'S NAVIES. 173 

In order to take care of her population of 1,625,000,000 
she has gathered together a navy consisting of 60 modern bat- 
tleships, 9 battle cruisers, 34 armored cruisers, 17 heavy pro- 
tected cruisers, 70 light cruisers, 232 destroyers, 59 torpedo 
boats of the latest type, 75 submarines, together with 50 sea- 
going auxiliaries of the fleet, which are used as mother ships to 
destroyers, mine-layers, distilling ships, oil ships, repair and 
hospital ships, with 145,000 officers and men. 

The first group, completed between 1895 and 1898, in- 
cludes six battleships, all of 14,900 tons displacement, 12,000 
horsepower and 2,000 tons coal capacity. The speed is 17.5 
knots, the armor belt being from 10 to 14 inches at the big guns 
and with a mean armor belt of 9 inches. The armament con- 
sists of 4 12-inch guns, 12 6-inch rapid fire, 16 3-inch rapid fire, 
12 3-pounder rapid fire, 2 light rapid fire and 2 machine guns. 
They have one torpedo tube above water and two under water. 
MONSTERS OF THE SEA. 

A later group of six was built in 1900 and 1902. These 
monsters of the sea are of 12,950 tons displacement, 13,500 
horsepower and have 2,300 tons coal capacity. They have a 
speed of 18.25 knots, 6 inches of armor belt and from 8 to 12 
inches protection for her big guns. The armament consists of 
4 12-inch rapid fire guns, 12 6-inch rapid fire, 10 3-inch rapid 
fire and 2 light rapid fire and 2 machine guns. There are four 
torpedo tubes. 

Gradually England developed larger and larger vessels 
from this point, increasing the displacement in each group 
from 16,350 tons in 1906 to 20,000 in 1911, and finally to 
25,700, when the Queen Elizabeth and Warspite were com- 
pleted in 1915. These boats — England's superdreadnoughts — 
are of 58,000 horsepower (turbine), 4,000 tons oil capacity. 
They have a speed of 25 knots, 13.5 inches of armor belt and 
from 8 to 13.5 inches protection for the big guns. The arma- 
ment consists of 8 15-inch, 16 6-inch and 121 3-inch rapid fire 



174 THE WORLD'S NAVIES. 

guns. They have five torpedo tubes. There were 150,609 
officers and men in the navy when England entered the war. 

THE FRENCH NAVY. 

At the beginning of the war the French navy ranked 
fourth among the navies of the world. She had 18 battleships 
of the older types, and which ranged in date of launching from 
1894 to 1909. There were building at that time eight ships of 
about 23,095 tons displacement. Although France had no 
battle cruisers, she had 19 armored cruisers. The heavier of 
these ships had a designed speed of 23 knots, and carried from 
2100 to 2300 tons of coal. Their main batteries consisted of 
2 7.6-inch rapid fire and 8 6.4-inch rapid fire guns. 

Two protected cruisers, the D'Entrecasteaux and the 
Guichen, and 10 light cruisers of no fighting importance com- 
pleted the list of French ships. 

France was, however, strong, so far as numbers go, in 
destroyers, torpedo boats and submarines, there being 84 de- 
stroyers, with displacements of 276 to 804 tons and speeds of 
28 and 31 knots. She possessed 135 torpedo boats and 78 sub- 
marines, but many of these were of small size. One hundred 
and one of her torpedo boats had displacements of about 95 
tons, and 20 of the submarines had displacements of 67 tons. 

Of the submarines, there were 33 which had a displace- 
ment of 390 tons, 2 of 410 tons, 6 of 550 tons, 2 of 785 tons 
and 7 of 830 tons. This displacement, which was surface, is 
usually 70 per cent of the submerged. The larger submarines 
carry from six to eight torpedo tubes. In the early part of 
1916 the French Government had 12 submarines building, 
these latter having surface displacement of 520 tons and having 
Diesel motors of 2000 horsepower. The speed of these sub- 
marines is 17% knots on the surface and 8 knots submerged. 

Attached to the French fleet are 16 auxiliaries, used as 
mine-layers, submarine destroyers and aeroplane mother ships, 
of from 300 to 7,898 tons. 



THE WORLD'S NAVIES. 175 

There were 61,240 officers and men in the navy of France 
when war was declared. 

THE RUSSIAN NAVY. 

With the ending of the Russo-Japanese war the Russian 
navy was given an overhauling. There were but three of the 
old battleships of the Russian navy left after this fateful strug- 
gle, these being the Tri Sviatitelia, the Panteleimon and the 
Czarevitch. The Russian Government labored diligently to 
build up her navy, and is still doing her utmost to readjust that 
branch of her service. 

With the outbreak of the great war she had six armored 
cruisers, none of which was in the Black Sea. These averaged 
in tonnage from 7,900 to 15,170 tons displacement. There 
were eight cruisers of from 3,100 to 6,700 tons, and of no fight- 
ing value whatever. 

Russia had but 14 torpedo boats, all small and of little 
value. She had a fairly good fleet of destroyers and subma- 
rines, having 91 of the former and 55 submarines. 

There were 36,000 officers and men in the service when 
hostilities opened. 

THE AUSTRIAN NAVY. 

When the war was declared Austria, Germany's sup- 
porter, had nine battleships ready. These were completed 
since 1905, as follows: In 1906 and 1907 there were finished 
three battleships which displaced 10,433 tons, had 14,000 horse- 
power and 1315 tons coal capacity. They had a speed of 19.25 
knots, 6 to 8.25 inches of side armor and 9.5 inches protection 
for the big guns. The armament consisted of 4 9.4-inch, 12 
7.6-inch rapid fire, 14 3-inch rapid fire and 16 smaller guns. 
They had two torpedo tubes. 

In 1910 three other ships were added to the navy. These 
were slightly larger than those described just above, having a 
displacement of 14,268 tons, with engines of 20,000 horse- 
power. They had three torpedo tubes. 



176 THE WORLD'S NAVIES. 

Three ships of 20,000 tons displacement were launched in 
1912 and 1913. They had a speed of 20 knots and four tor- 
pedo tubes. Three other battleships had been built up until 
1906, and these, together with 10 light cruisers, were in the 
Austrian navy at the breaking out of hostilities. 

The torpedo boat destroyers, of which there were 18, must 
not be forgotten. Twelve of these were of 384 tons, capable 
of making 28% knots. These carried 4 12-pounders and 2 
21-inch torpedo tubes. They were built for oil fuel. 

There were six submarines in this navy, these being of 
moderate size, ranging from 216 to 235 tons displacement on 
the surface. 

THE JAPANESE NAVY. 

There were 9 first-class battleships in the Japanese navy 
at the beginning of the world war. Of battle cruisers there 
were 5, while of the older battleships 13 were ready for orders. 
Twelve first-class cruisers were ready for duty, and there were 
9 second-class cruisers and 9 third-class cruisers. Of gunboats 
there were 5, 60 destroyers, 37 torpedo boats and 15 subma- 
rines. The personnel of the Japanese navy consisted of 47,000 
officers and men. 

THE ITALIAN NAVY. 

Italy was ready for her part on the seas with 7 first-class 
battleships, 8 of the older type, 9 first-class cruisers, 5 second- 
class cruisers, 10 third-class cruisers, 5 gunboats, 46 destroyers, 
75 torpedo boats and 20 submarines. There were 36,000 
officers and men to handle these ships. 

THE TURKISH NAVY. 

When hostilities were declared Turkey had a navy con- 
sisting of 2 first-class battleships, 3 battleships of an older type, 
2 first-class cruisers, 2 second-class cruisers, 4 third-class 
cruisers, 8 gunboats, 2 monitors, 10 destroyers and 8 torpedo 
boats. The officers and men in the Turkish navy numbered 
30,000. 



THE WORLD'S NAVIES. 177 

UNITED STATES NAVY. 

The United States navy, which has made an enviable 
reputation for itself wherever and whenever the boats and men 
have been engaged, ranked third at the beginning of the war. 
While not of the heaviest type, the boats were of the most 
improved models, and maintained on a basis that justified the 
belief that they would stand up in the face of the severest 
opposition. 

There were 12 modern battleships, 30 of an older type, 
10 armored cruisers, 5 first-class cruisers, 4 second-class 
cruisers, 16 third-class cruisers, 30 gunboats, 9 monitors, 74 
destroyers, 19 torpedo boats and 73 submarines, manned by 
55,389 officers and men. The California, Idaho, Arizona, Mis- 
sissippi and Pennsylvania are the latest battleships of the navy, 
and are of the super-dreadnought type. All of these battle- 
ships have a displacement of more than 31,000 tons, and have 
the most complete equipment that it is possible to command. 
The batteries consist of 4 13-inch and 14 6-inch guns, 4 
6-pounders, together with 4 21-inch torpedo tubes. There is a 
variation in the batteries, but all have approximately the same 
kind of armament. 

One of these huge vessels is about 625 feet long, and has 
a speed of from 21 to 23 knots. The Pennsylvania, one of the 
largest, is of 31,500 horsepower, and cost approximately 
$7,250,000. In addition to this, Congress had authorized the 
construction of what is designed to be the supreme type of 
fighting vessel. The plans for these vessels call for the con- 
struction of vessels aproximately 875 feet long and nearly 90 
feet wide. Some idea of what enormous vessels these must be 
may be gained when it is seen that the cruisers are 250 feet 
longer than the super-dreadnought. 

The battle cruisers have six decks, extending from end to 
end, and are so extensive that they almost constitute a battle- 
front. 

H R— 12 



178 THE WORLD'S NAVIES. 

This comparison to a battlefront on land becomes interest- 
ing when consideration of it is further pursued. There are 
even railroads to fetch ammunition to the guns, though they 
run vertically instead of horizontally. The general headquar- 
ters is in the conning tower, to which all lines of "field com- 
munication" lead — telegraphs, telephones, etc. 

The "observation posts," for directing and correcting the 
range and aim of artillery, are at the tops of the two wire 
"bird-cage" masts. This work is helped (as on land) by kite 
balloons and aeroplanes, which, as part of its fighting equip- 
ment, the battle cruiser carries. To blind the enemy ships, 
under suitable circumstances, the big guns create a "barrage" 
of water, by directing their fire at the sea in front of the hostile 
vessels, throwing over them a mass of spray. 

AMPLE PROVISION FOR THE WOUNDED. 

On board the battle cruiser is a fully equipped field hos- 
pital, supplemented by battle dressing stations near the guns, 
for the emergency treatment of the wounded. To the musi- 
cians of the ship's band is assigned the duty of carrying wound- 
ed men to the dressing stations and the hospital, the latter 
being on one of the lower decks, beneath the water level. 

The battle cruiser, built long and narrow, has a great 
speed. The four monster propellers are driven by electricity, 
which is generated by engines fed with fuel oil. The speed 
attained is 35 knots an hour, which means the same speed as a 
train traveling at the rate of 40 miles an hour, since the sea 
mile, or knot, is longer than the land mile. 

In order to obtain this enormous speed it was necessary 
for the designers of the battle cruisers to sacrifice armor pro- 
tection. The armor on these ships is but an eight-inch belt. 
The real object of the battle cruiser is to use its superior speed 
and overwhelming gun power to overtake and destroy the 
enemy's ships of the second line, the auxiliaries and scouts. 

Each of these vessels has a displacement of 34,800 tons — 



THE WORLD'S NAVIES. 179 

meaning, in plain language, that they weigh that much, hence 
displace that much water when launched. The biggest British 
battle cruiser, which is the largest battle cruiser afloat, is the 
British Tiger, which has a displacement of 28,500 tons, and is 
less in length by 150 feet than these mighty battle cruisers. 
The Tiger is much less formidably armed, carrying eight 
13%-inch guns. The largest German battle cruiser is the 
Derfflinger, of 26,200 tons, and armed with eight 12-inch rifles. 
Our latest commissioned dreadnought, the Arizona, has 
engines of 31,400 horsepower. The engines of that monster 
passenger steamship, the ill-fated Lusitania, were of 70,000 
horsepower. Those of the Tiger boast 120,000 horsepower. 
But each of our six battle cruisers has 180,000 horsepower to 
drive her through the water. 

HUGE FIGHTING CRAFT. 

These huge fighting craft are the most expensive ships 
ever built. Each of them cost about $20,000,000, the money 
outlay being something like $16,500,000, exclusive of armor 
and guns. And for each battle cruiser must be provided, in 
the way of personnel, 1,153 enlisted men, 64 marines and 58 
officers. 

While the American Navy had but 55,389 men when the 
war opened it was quickly increased, and under the Army bill, 
which provided for the reorganization and increasing of the 
land forces, the naval forces were also increased. 

The bill increasing the authorized enlisted strength of the 
navy to 150,000 did not provide for any additional officers 
above the rank of lieutenant. The increase in the enlisted force 
amounts to 57,000, the authorized strength at the time of the 
law's passage being 93,000. Based on the increase, the allow- 
ance of officers would be 747 lieutenants and 954 lieutenants 
junior grade and ensigns. 

The increase in the enlisted strength of the Marine Corps 
from 17,400 to 30,000, or by 12,600, also gives an additional 



180 THE WORLD'S NAVIES. 

allowance of 504 officers to the corps, which, under the bill, are 
distributed among the grades of major, captain, first lieuten- 
ant and second lieutenant. 

The Marine Corps is one of the most picturesque military 
organizations in the world. There is, probably, no other such 
body of trained soldiery. While they are under the control of 
the Navy Department, they can be detached from that branch 
of the service and assigned for duty with any other branch of 
the military forces of the country. 

POLICEMEN OF THE SEA. 

They are the policemen of the sea; they are artillerymen, 
infantrymen, cavalry, engineers, and soldiers, first, last and all 
the time. They are the first troops in action, and there is no 
restriction as to the kind of military duty they are called upon 
to perform. 

The Marines served on shore and on board vessels of the 
navy throughout the Revolutionary War, two battalions hav- 
ing been authorized by the Continental Congress NWember 
10, 1775. The present organization really dates from July, 
1798, when Congress passed an act approving the establish- 
ment of an organization to be known as the Marine Corpse 
consisting of 1 major, 4 captains, 16 first lieutenants, 12 second 
lieutenants, 48 sergeants, 48 corporals, 32 drums and fifes and 
720 privates. 

Every one of the 15,000 men who composed the more than 
a century old Marine Corps when the war broke out was ready 
and on his toes when the call for action came. There was noth- 
ing in the way of scientific preparedness that got by them. In 
the matter of trench helmets, for instance, when it was time for 
the American nation to come to the front in the great world 
war, the Marines had a helmet so much of an improvement on 
the one used by the Allies that there was no comparison. 

Armored motorcars, likewise, of the most improved type, 
belonged to the Marine Corps when the call for action came. 



THE WORLD'S NAVIES. 181 

These cars are capable of making 45 miles an hour, and there 
were plenty of them for service in the Marine Corps. Some 
interesting equipment never used before the big war composed 
part of the quartermasters' stores in the Marine Corps. 

It's a marvel what these chaps can do with a big naval 
gun — one of those big brutes which are bolted down to the deck 
of a warship. It doesn't look like a thing to be picked up and 
carted around the country. That's precisely what the heavy 
artillery companies do, however. It takes them but a few min- 
utes to sling one of these five-inchers over the side of a ship, 
land it, and take it wherever it is needed. They do this with 
the aid of a single-spar derrick, some little narrow-gauge 
trucks and a portable narrow-gauge railroad. 

TRANSPORTATION OF BIG GUN. 

The method is to lay down the railroad — it can be done 
very swiftly by men carefully trained in the art of laying tracks 
over all kinds of ground — put the gun and its mount, with a 
specially prepared base of extremely heavy timbers, on the 
tracks, and trundle it to the place where it is needed to pour 
a rapid fire into the enemy. 

Here a pit has been dug, in which is laid down the heavy 
timber base, riveted together with heavy steel bolts. Then it 
is well packed with dirt and stone, and the gun carriage made 
fast ingeniously. The single-stick derrick has been erected 
alongside, guyed out in four directions with heavy ropes, which 
are made fast to the ground by means of "dead men," and 
manipulated by very live gangs of husky marines. A chain 
block of powerful type is used to pick up the gun carriage and 
put it in place, and afterwards to swing the gun into its sockets 
on the carriage. 

Later the breech locks and sights are added, and the big 
five-inch, 40-caliber naval gun is ready to go into action. These 
big and heavy guns, suitable for long range work with high 
explosive shells, can be taken a quarter of a mile or so from the 



182 THE WORLD'S NAVIES. 

ship which carried them, over rough ground, set up and put in 
operation in a few days' time. 

But the heavy artillery base is only one of the Marines' 
work. They have big howitzers, of the more modern type, 
most of which are kept at Annapolis, where they can be loaded 
aboard ship in short order. Men and machines can be mobilized 
at the strategic points in a very short time. 

EVERY MANS SERVICE. 

The Marine service is unique in many respects. For one 
thing, it is every man's service. The proportion of officers who 
have risen from the ranks or who have been commissioned 
from civilian life is higher in the Marine Corps than in either 
the Army or the Navy. This, of course, makes for democracy 
in the corps. An enlisted man, who does not wait until he is 
too far up in the 20's to enlist, has a very fair chance of earning 
his commission. Another thing — and this is of prime import- 
ance to the ambitious fellow — promotion goes by merit. In the 
army and navy the young officer is promoted by seniority. 

Things are a bit different in the Marine Corps. In this 
organization a man doesn't absolutely have to wait for his num- 
ber to come around. If he distinguishes himself above his fel- 
lows, he may be promoted without much regard for age or 
length of service. He goes up as he is able to, by his active 
ability and his readiness to work hard and effectively for Uncle 
Sam. There are advocates, of course, of both systems. There 
are merits which both systems can justly claim. But it goes 
without saying that this possibility of promotion keeps every- 
body in the Marine Corps on the jump. 

Even the enlisted men who are too old to get commissions 
have something to work for. Not very long since Congress 
authorized the appointment of "warrant officers" in the Marine 
Corps. The Navy had this grade for many years. It is new 
in the Marine Corps, and is an added incentive to hard work. 

Another incentive — and perhaps the strongest one — that 



THE WORLD'S NAVIES. 183 

draws young fellows of the up-and-doing sort into the Marine 
Corps is that of active service. The Marines boast that they 
are always on the job; that no matter how peaceful the time, 
the Marines are sure to see "something stirring" right along. 
It is a saying — and a true one — in the Marine Corps that every 
marine who lias served the ordinary enlistment in the corps 
since the Spanish- American war has smelt powder. Ever since 
the fuss with Spain the marines have been covering themselves 
with glory. In that little war of 1898 the Marines were the 
first to land in Cuba. They held Guantanamo for three 
months. In 1890 they saw service in the Philippines; the next 
year in China. In 1902 the Marines took part in the fighting 
against Aguinaldo, the wily Filipino leader. In 1903 they put 
down the rebellion in Panama, captured Colon and opened up 
the Panama railroad. In 1906 they helped quiet the uprising 
of that summer in Cuba. They were in Nicaragua in 1909. 
From 1911 to 1913 they did more duty in Cuba, with a whirl 
in Nicaragua again in 1912. They helped hold Vera Cruz 
for three months in 1914. Next year they went to Haiti, where 
they have been moderately busy from time to time since. Santo 
Domingo saw them in 1916. 

AN UNAPPROACHABLE RECORD. 
Neither the army nor the navy can claim anything to beat 
it — you couldn't tell a marine that the rival branches of the 
service can claim anything to equal it. And as for the modern 
implements of warfare — the European armies have no advan- 
tage over the marines for testing out new devices. They had 
armored cars, for instance, as far back as 1906; they began to 
use motor trucks for military purposes as early as 1909. Every 
marine expedition is equipped with its quota of armored trucks. 
They would as soon think of voyaging over the seas to put 
down an incipient revolution without their armored cars and 
motor trucks as they would of going to meet the enemy without 
their rifle. 



184 THE WORLD'S NAVIES. 

There used to be an old joke about ''Horse Marines." A 
sailorman on a horse is an incongruous thing — a sight to make 
you hold your sides. But the marines are not plain sailormen. 
They are "soldier and sailor, too," and as soldiers they have 
turned the joke on the old saw about "horse marines." There 
are "horse marines" these days, and mighty good cavalry they 
make. 

The marine can ride with the best of the cavalrymen. And 
in the fracas in Domingo there were two cavalry companies of 
marines organized. 

THE MANY-SIDED MARINE. 

It takes a bit longer to make an efficient marine than to 
make an infantryman. This because the marine is a man of 
many specialties. He is, of course, in season and out of season, 
an international policeman. That's his job in time of peace. 
But when he fares abroad to fight his country's battles he may 
be called upon to do almost any kind of work. He may be an 
artilleryman; a signalman; an airman. He may be, and 
usually is, anything that his country needs at that particular 
time. And he is trained to meet the emergency. 

The new recruit, in ordinary times, is sent for his first in- 
struction to Port Royal, down in Georgia. There he has 
nothing to do but drill, drill, drill, until he can do the infantry 
evolutions in his sleep. He learns to drill, he learns to keep 
clean — the Marines are something of a dandy corps — and he 
learns to take care of himself no matter what happens. He is 
taught to be a soldier and a man. He learns to walk straight, 
shoot straight, think straight. And then he goes for a spell to 
sea — for after all, he needs sea legs as well as land legs. 

But these two tricks of duty by no means end the marine's 
schooling. When he has become an efficient all-around man he 
may specialize. He may, if he chooses, go into the signal corps 
and learn the multitude of details connected with this ultra- 
modern arm of the service. He learns to send messages by 



THE WOKLD'S NAVIES. 185 

every possible means. He learns to operate a radio. And, it 
might be mentioned in passing, the Marine Corps is equipped 
with the very finest of radio apparatus. They have big trucks 
which carry the outfit and supply the power for either sending 
radio messages or operating huge electric searchlights. Or he 
may go into aviation. 




Reproduced by permission of N. Y. Evening Post 
INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES BEFOEE THE WAR. 
This map shows the boundary lines between nations as they were at the 
beginning of the war, as also the coast lines of Europe. The latter are brought 
out in bold relief. 



186 



CHAPTER XI. 

THE NATIONS AT WAR. 

Unexpected Developments — How the Wae Flames Spread — A Score of Coun- 
tries Involved — The Points of Contact — Picturesque and Pugged Bul- 
garia, POUMANLA, SERVIA, GREECE, ITALY AND HISTORIC SOUTHEAST EUROPE. 

THE real history of the greatest war of all times is the 
history of the entire world, touching every phase of 
existence in a manner that has never been approxi- 
mated by any other conflict. The motives and ramifications 
are so great that it is almost impossible for the human mind to 
grasp the significance of many things of importance which, at 
a glance, seem to be but incidents. 

The world looked on expectantly when the war started, 
because there was a general knowledge of the conditions exist- 
ing in Europe and the undercurrent was felt by students of 
international affairs. But that Russia would revolt and the 
Czar abdicate, as he did in March, 1917, and the iron-ruled 
country would set up a government of its own — would join 
the circle of democracies — was not even hinted at. Neither 
was it intimated that Constantine I, King of Greece, would 
abdicate in favor of his son, Prince Alexander, as he did in the 
following June, under pressure, because of his sympathy for 
Germany. 

Neither was there a suspicion that the fire started by the 
flash of a pistol and the bursting of a bomb in Bosnia would 
spread until sixteen countries were arrayed against Ger- 
many and Austria, supported by the Bulgarians and the 
Turks. And to these must be added the entrance into the con- 
flict of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, possessions of Great 
Britain, and smaller possessions of other countries. The flames 
swept over the face of the earth in this fashion: 

Starting with the movement of Austria against Servia, 
after the assassination of the Archduke Ferdinand, there lined 

187 



188 THE NATIONS AT WAR 

up as a consequence of the alliances formed between the pow- 
ers, the countries referred to in preceding chapters. The triple 
alliance was originally an agreement between Germany, Aus- 
tria-Hungary and Italy, to strengthen their positions, and the 
Triple Entente consisted of agreements between France, Eng- 
land and Russia. 

INVASION OF BELGIUM. 

Briefly, the invasion of Belgium by Germany, and her 
ambitions in the southeast, where Russia had what amounted 
to protectorate relations, drew first France, England and 
Russia into the strife, and step by step there became involved 
nation after nation. The steps, marked by the declarations of 
war, were as follows: On July 28, 1914, Austria declared war 
on Servia, and on August 1 Germany made the declaration 
against Russia. Next Germany turned upon France, on the 
third day of August, and also on Belgium, whereupon, on the 
following day, Great Britain declared war on Germany ; a day 
later Austria-Hungary issued the mandate against Russia, 
and two days later, or on August 8, Montenegro declared war 
on Austria. Austria accepted the challenge, and then Servia 
took up the cudgel against Germany. France made formal 
declaration of war on Austria- Hungary and by the end of 
August Montenegro had declared against Germany; Great 
Britain on Austria; Japan on Germany; Austria on Japan; 
Austria on Belgium. Later, or early in November, Russia 
declared herself against Turkey, as did France and Great 
Britain. 

For six months the battle raged and the rest of the world 
regarded the result with grave concern until in May of 1915 
Italy, having renounced her alliance with Germany and Aus- 
tria, declared war first on Austria, then on Turkey. In the 
fall of 1915 Servia took up arms against Bulgaria, as did 
Great Britain, France, Italy and Russia. Then Germany de- 
clared against Portugal, whose government replied in kind; 



THE NATIONS AT WAR. 189 

Austria followed Germany in the alignment and finally, in 
August, 1916, there were exchanges of sharp "courtesies" — 
the complete severance of all diplomatic relations and open 
warfare — between Roumania and Austria-Hungary; then be- 
tween Bulgaria and Koumania, with the consequent alignment 
of the Central Powers. Italy had also made her declaration 
against Germany specific. So for nine months the war waged 
with terrible bitterness until on April 6, the United States, by 
the proclamation of President Wilson, was finally at war with 
Germany. 

IN THE NATURE OF MERE FORMALITIES. 

These steps were, in many instances, in the nature of for- 
malities, for the relationships of some of the countries involved 
placed them in the position of practically being at war before 
formal announcement was made. The position then, was that 
Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey were supported by 
Bulgaria, who was anxious to get redress for having been 
cheated out of what she regarded as her rightful possessions in 
the settlement of the Balkan war question. Those aligned on 
the other side were England, France, Russia, Montenegro, 
Italy, Belgium (which had been making defensive warfare in 
keeping with her desire to be true to her neutral pledges) ; 
Servia, Roumania, Japan, Portugal, the United States, the 
little principality of Monaco, which is best known as the seat 
of Monte Carlo, the great gambling center of Europe, and 
San Marino, a similar "patch" on the map of Europe. Brazil, 
Guatemala, and the little Republic of Cuba also aligned them- 
selves against Germany in support of the Allies, though there 
was no actual engagement of their forces. Thus there could 
be counted as at war against the Central Powers in June, 1917, 
sixteen countries. 

Most interesting of all the countries involved were those 
belonging to the Balkan group and centering in southeastern 
Europe. The Balkan nations, Bulgaria, Servia, Montenegro, 



THE NATIONS AT WAR. 191 

with Greece, paved the way for their entrance into the conflict 
when they formed an alliance, in 1912, for common protection, 
particularly for the enforcement of one of the provisions of 
the Berlin Treaty, guaranteeing local government to the Bul- 
gar and Serbian colonies in Macedonia. Montenegro began 
war on Turkey in October, and Bulgaria, Servia and Greece 
joined and drove the Turks out of many of their strongholds. 

"COMIC OPERA" SOLDIERS. 

In a month of fighting the little countries, in the pictur- 
esque southeastern section, whose soldiers have been depicted 
as "comic opera" soldiers, had rent Turkey; Greece had cap- 
tured the famous Macedonian city of Salonica, once known as 
Thessalonica, where was located the church in which was ad- 
dressed St. Paul's Epistle to the Thessalonians ; while the 
Servians had captured Monastir, one of the most important 
centers in Macedonia, and the Bulgarians had driven the Turks 
almost to the famed city of Constantinople. The Servian sol- 
diers finally marched to the Adriatic sea, and Albania -raised 
a flag of its own and asked Austria-Hungary and Italy to 
recognize its independence and grant it protection. 

Within little more than two months Turkey had been de- 
prived of the greater portion of her possessions in Europe and 
a treaty of peace was signed between the allied countries and 
the Turks. By this agreement Albania became in effect a su- 
zerainty, protected by Austria. But the agreement between 
Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy — the Triple Entente- 
gave those countries a combined power which, when it came to 
fixing the terms of peace, left the small allied countries of 
victory at a disadvantage, and while Montenegro and Greece 
gained some territory, as did Servia, Bulgaria lost what she 
had gained in the war. Turkey lost 90 per cent of her Empire 
in Europe, which so aroused the country that the rising of 
the young Turks followed and the government was reorgan- 



192 THE NATIONS AT WAR. 

ized. The enforced terms of settlement, however, set the little 
countries at each other's throats. 

The field of the Balkan battles is the very center of the 
world's history. Along the Adriatic, Ionian and Agean seas 
are lands and territories peopled with races that mark their 
ancestry back to the very darkest ages. The protected country 
of Albania, with its rocky surface, numbers among its peoples 
descendants of the Arnauts, whose very origin is a mystery. 
They were present before the days of Greece and Rome. The 
Ottoman Turks, the Bulgars from the plains of the Volga and 
the Ural Mountains, the Serbs, the Roumanians, Russians, 
Italians, the Slavs, Tartars. 

A REGION OF MOUNTAINS. 

Albania is a mountainous region along the Adriatic coast, 
peopled with descendants of the ancients who maintain their 
characteristics. They are said to be descendants of the Pelas- 
gian races, which inhabited the territory before the Greeks 
builded their Athens. 

The Albanians are wild, daring mountaineers, and though 
the people have, to all intents and purposes, been under Turk- 
ish rule for centuries, they have never recognized the sov- 
ereignty of the Sultan. It was originally part of the Turkish 
Empire in Europe, having been taken by Turkey, in 1467, and 
is a fertile, but wild country. 

The same picturesque people that make up the popula- 
tion of Albania constitute the populace of the little country 
of Montenegro, which was once part of the Turkish posses- 
sion. Montenegro contained about 3486 square miles of terri- 
tory before its acquisitions in the Balkan wars. Aided by 
Russia, the country obtained its independence from Turkey in 
1878, and in 1910 became a kingdom. Its present area is about 
5650 square miles and the population 520,000. The capital is 
Cettinje. 

Bulgaria was also once a part of the Turkish possessions, 



THE NATIONS AT WAR. 193 

and under the Treaty of Berlin, in 1878, became a suzerainty. 
It is a famous pastoral country, inhabited by a people for 
years held under the Ottoman heel. They are racially Tura- 
nians, and kin of the Tartar and Huns, who came into their 
present fertile country from the vast plains of eastern Russia. 
They made their way thither more than a thousand years ago, 
and battling at the very gates of Constantinople, by their fierce 
crusades, secured the grants from the Byzantine Empire of 
the territory, which constitutes the Bulgaria of today. The 
population is nearly 5,000,000, and the country contains about 
43,000 square miles. 

WHY ITALY ENTERED THE WAR. 

Italy's reasons for entering the war, aside from her de- 
mands for territory, in exchange for continuance of neutrality, 
have to do with matters of years gone by, when she began the 
struggle for her liberation from the Austrian domination. 
Italy desired, among other things, to acquire Trentino, Goritz, 
and other adjacent territory controlled by Austria, but Italian 
in every attribute. Trentino is a rocky region, and strategically 
valuable to the country possessing it, which was proved by the 
terrible struggle which the Italians were forced to make in 
their attacks against the Austrian forces. 

The city of Trent is the capital of Trentino, famous in 
history, and the seat of the long church council in 1545-46. It 
was in turn controlled by Roman, Goth, Hun, Lombard and 
Holy Roman Empire. It is the site of many historic buildings, 
notably the cathedral of Trent, which is a fine example of 
Lombard architecture, and the church of Santa Maria Mag- 
gorie, where the famous Council of the Roman Catholic 
Church was held. There are old towers, and libraries rich in 
manuscripts. 

Trentino is famous for its mountain passes, over which 
the Italians have been compelled to drag their heavy artillery 
and implements of war. The Alpini, the mountaineer soldiers 

H Br— 13 




>.s 



194 



THE NATIONS AT WAR. 195 

of Italy, are among the most picturesque in the world. They 
have scaled the almost perpendicular faces of the Alps, climb- 
ing from crag to crag with their bodies roped together, drag- 
ging machine guns in pieces strapped to their shoulders. Tol- 
mino, Trieste, Istria, Dalmatia, Avlona, the prime harbor of 
Albania (seized by Italy in the fall of 1916). These are little 
spots in the territory logically Italian, which Italy covets. 

DIVIDED INTO SIXTEEN DEPARTMENTS, 
Italy, since its consolidation into one kingdom in 1870, 
has been divided into sixteen departments comprising sixty- 
nine provinces. The country has a total area of 110,623 square 
miles, and a population of a little more than 35,000,000. The 
Roman Catholic Church is irrevocably linked to the history of 
Italy and Rome, its capital, marked the farthest advance of 
civilization in the ancient days. It possesses four distinct zones, 
ranging from the almost arctic cold of the mountain belts to an 
almost tropical heat in the southern lowlands. It is one of the 
picturesque countries of the world, a center of art, industry 
and travel. 

Servia, which is separated from Austria-Hungary by the 
Danube, is of precisely the same character as the other rich, 
mountainous region. The country was subjugated by the 
Turks, who retained possession of it until 1717. Austria then 
wrested control from the Turks, and held it until 1791, when 
Turkey again dominated it. In 1805 the Servians revolted, 
and secured temporary independence, only to again come un- 
der the Ottoman rule. Again it secured freedom in 1815, and 
by the Treaty of Paris, independent existence was secured for 
it. Turkey became only a nominal authority. It became a 
kingdom in 1882, after having become absolutely independent 
with the Berlin Treaty. 

The people are Slavonic, and kin to the Croats of ancient 
history. They are described as having come from Poland and 
Galicia, moving down the Danube, into what is the present 



196 THE NATIONS AT WAE. 

kingdom. In the fourteenth century the Servian empire com- 
prised the whole Balkan peninsula, from Greece to Poland, 
and from the Black Sea to the Adriatic. But Servia warred 
with Turkey, and her troops were defeated in the great battle 
at Kossovo, and the Ottoman power became supreme. The 
country has an area of about 84,000 square miles and a popula- 
tion of 4,600,000. 

LITTLE BOSNIA'S FUTURE. 

Bosnia, where was assassinated the Archduke Francis 
Ferdinand, of Austria, was a Turkish province, west of Servia, 
and under the treaty of Berlin was to be administered for an 
undefined period by the Austrian government. The little sec- 
tion contains about 16,000 square miles and has a population of 
about 1,750,000, largely of Slavonic origin. They are partly 
Mohammedans, partly Roman Catholics and Greek Catholics. 
In the middle ages Bosnia belonged to the Eastern Empire. 
Later it became a separate kingdom, dependent upon Hun- 
gary, only to be conquered by the Turks. It is the mountain- 
ous, rugged country of the Julian and Dinaric Alps, but has 
many fertile valleys, and is well watered by the river Save, and 
its numerous tributaries. 

Greece, the modern kingdom, is one of the countries that 
for centuries were politically included within the limits of the 
Turkish Empire. In its present form it represents but a por- 
tion of that country, famous in history, as the Greece of the 
Ancients — that classic land which holds the most conspicuous 
place in the pages of ancient history — but still it is inclusive of 
the greatest names belonging to the glorious past. It is the 
country of Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes and Argos. It is 
separated from Turkey by a winding boundary, extending 
from the Gulf of Arta on the west to the Gulf of Salonica on 
the east. 

The earliest settlers were the Pelasgi, who were in course 
of time replaced by the Hellenes. They, in turn, were sue- 



THE NATIONS AT WAR. 197 

ceeded by the Phoenicians, who swayed the country. Athens, 
Sparta, Thebes and Corinth came into existence and became 
the centers of political government, of the most progressive 
advancement in civilization. Civil discords brought on first 
the Peloponnesian War, about 434 B. C, and made them prey 
to the Macedonians. Successively invaded by Goths, Vandals 
and Normans the country came into the possession of the Turks 
in 1481, though for two centuries the power of the Turk was 
questioned by the Venitians. Revolt was had from the Otto- 
man yoke in 1821, and independence was secured by the inter- 
ference of foreign powers after the defeat of the Turk at the 
Navarino, in 1827. Through the succeeding years it has been 
a protected monarchy. 

ONE OF THE BALKAN GROUP. 

Roumania, the largest of the Balkan group, lying be- 
tween Russia on the north, and Bulgaria on the south, is the 
home of the Gacians, descendants of the warlike tribes who for 
years held their own against Greek and Roman. After the 
fall of Rome the province became a melting pot, through which 
the hordes of invaders, passing from Russia to Asia, were in a 
sense made one people. The Goths, the Huns, the Lombards, 
the Bulgars and the Magyars traversed the region, leaving 
many settlers. It became divided into two provinces, Moldavia 
and Wallachia, known as the Danubian provinces. 

Both provinces were conquered by the Turks in the fif- 
teenth and sixteenth centuries, and under Peter the Great the 
Russians attempted the conquest of the provinces. In 1859 
the two provinces were united under a prince whose indepen- 
dence both Turkey and Russia recognized, and in 1881 the 
country declared itself a kingdom. The province of Wallachia 
derives its name from the people who early settled there, the 
Wallachs. The Roumanians claim descent from Vlachi, 
a colony of Romans, who settled in Thrace, and, in the twelfth 
century, emigrated to the Danube. The name Roumania is 



198 THE NATIONS AT WAR. 

derived from the word Roman, the country having originally 
been "the Land of the Roumani." Roumania has a population 
of about 7,600,000 and comprises 64,000 square miles. 

Macedonia, famous country of Greece in the time of 
Philip, father of Alexander the Great, embraced the entire 
region from the Scardian Mountains to Thessaly, and from the 
Epirus and Illyria to the river Nestos, taking in what is now 
part of Salonica. It was reduced by the Persians and subse- 
quently Alexander the Great made it the nucleus of a vast and 
powerful empire along with Greece. Ultimately it passed 
under Roman sway, until it was ceded, in 1913, to Greece. 

AN OBJECT OF CONTENTION. 

Alsace-Lorraine is worthy of note, as comprising one of 
the territories which for centuries have been the cause of con- 
flict between Germany and France. It is pointed to as the 
physical evidence of the humiliation of France at the hands of 
the Germans, in 1870, and has for nearly one-half a century 
been a German imperial territory. The surrender of Alsace 
and part of Lorraine was made the principal condition of peace 
on the settlement of the war of 1870. Bismarck, it is said, 
might have been content with a language boundary, taking 
only that portion of the country in which lived those who spoke 
the German tongue. 

For strategic purposes, however, Alsace and Lorraine, 
with the exception of one district, were taken. The strip or 
country was to be governed by the power of the German Em- 
peror until the constitution of the German Empire was estab- 
lished. Many of the inhabitants opposed the Prussian domi- 
nation, and a vote was taken on who would declare themselves 
Germans and remain in the territory, or French and leave. 
More than 40,000 left the country and went into France. 

The German language was made compulsory in the 
schools, the courts and the legislative body. The French never 
forgot their loss, and revenge for that loss has been a subject 




.a &d 
s pi 

<p 
Pi J 

O . 
W 

• i-H «H 
rQ * 
> CO 
03 -^ 



02 .3 03 

v~ ^PPl ti 

Is- 

S -^ 

p n w 

&j "- 1 O 

O r3 -H 

O 03 ri 

•a 03 o) 

,■?!* 



in 



a 



S pi 8 

P? 03 

pi ri£! 
o O 

"H CO 

.£ ° 
« pi 

a .2 

£ c3 

r3 O 

I EH 

pi 



1W9 



200 THE NATIONS AT WAR. 

of consideration in their foreign policy ever since the war of 
1871. Alsace and Lorraine contain about 5600 square miles, 
and together have a population of about two million. About 
85 per cent of the people speak German. 

PICTURESQUE TURKEY. 

Turkey, one of the picturesque and ancient countries 
which is aligned with the Germans, is a Mohammedan state of 
the Ottoman Empire in southeastern Europe and western 
Asia, whose holdings in Europe have been steadily decreasing, 
especially during recent years. The immediate possessions of 
Turkey, or those directly under the Sultan's rule at the time 
this country became involved in the great world war, extended 
from Montenegro, Bosnia, Servia and eastern Roumelia on the 
north, to the Agean Sea and Greece on the south, and from 
the Black Sea to the Adriatic, the Straits of Otranto and 
the Ionic Sea. In September, 1911, the Italian government 
sent a long list of claims made by Italy against Turkey for 
economic and commercial discrimination against Italian com- 
merce, and the person of Italian citizens all over the world. 
A reply was demanded within twenty-four hours, and failing 
to receive a reply considered satisfactory, Italy immediately 
sent warships to Tripoli, bombarded and captured the city. 
This meant that Turkey has lost one of her most important 
seaports, consequently weakening her position. 

The immediate possessions of Turkey in Europe, at this 
time, had an area of 65,350 square miles, with a population of 
6,200,000. In Asia Turkey had possessions of 693,610 square 
miles, with a population of 16,900,000, while in Africa about 
398,000 square miles belonged to the Turkish Empire, on which 
lived 1,000,000 persons. This gave Turkey an area of about 
1,157,860 square miles, with a population of 24,100,000. A 
number of islands in the Agean Sea belong to Turkey, and 
Egypt is also nominally part of the kingdom of the Sultan. 

The population is a motley assortment of races, nationali- 



THE NATIONS AT WAR. 201 

ties and creeds. About 38 per cent being Ottomans or Turks. 
The Slavic and Rouman races come next in importance, then 
the Arabs, the remaining population consisting of Moors, 
Druses, Kurds, Tartars, Albanians, Circassians, Syrians, Ar- 
menians, and Greeks, besides Jews and Gypsies. 
PHOENIX OF THE GREEK EMPIRE. 

The Ottoman Empire arose from the ruins of the old 
Greek Empire, early in the fifteenth century, Constantinople 
being made its capital in 1453, after its capture by Mohammed 
II. At the accession of Mohammed IV, in 1648, the Turkish 
Empire was at the zenith of its power. Internal corruption 
caused loss of power, and in 1774, a large slice of territory was 
ceded to Russia. In 1821 Greece became independent. The 
Crimean War, in 1854-56, checked Russia for a while, but in 
1875 the people of Herzegovina rebelled. A year later the 
Servians and Montenegrins revolted, and in 1877 Russia be- 
gan hostile operations in both parts of the Turkish Emipre. 
At this time Roumania declared her independence. After the 
fall of Kars and of Plevna, the Turkish resistance completely 
collapsed, and in 1878 Turkey was compelled to agree to the 
Treaty of San Stefano. 

Within the year the Treaty of Berlin declared Roumania, 
Servia and Montenegro independent; Roumanian Bessarabia 
was ceded to Russia, Austria was empowered to occupy Bosnia 
and Herzegovina ; and Bulgaria was made a principality. The 
main events in the history of the Ottoman Empire since the 
Treaty of Berlin were the French invasion of Tunis in 1881, 
the Treaty with Greece, executed under pressure of the Great 
Powers in 1881, by which Greece obtained Thessaly and a strip 
of Epirus ; the occupation of Egypt by Great Britain in 1882 ; 
the revolution of Philippopolis in 1885, by which eastern Rou- 
melia became united with Bulgaria. In 1908 Bulgaria de- 
clared its independence and the Young Turk Party extorted a 
constitution and a parliament from Abdul-Hamud II, who 



202 THE NATIONS AT WAR. 

was deposed in 1909 by the unanimous vote of the national 
assembly. Mohammed V, eldest brother of the deposed Sultan 
succeeded to the throne. 

Russia, "the Great Bear," whose part in the war brought 
on internal strife and revolution which robbed Czar Nicholas 
of his throne, traces its history back for more than ten cen- 
turies, when the Norse invaded the territory and founded 
Veliki Novgorod, for many years one of the chief Russian 
cities. The Norse, to use the modern vernacular, "put Russia 
on the map" when the Russian army fought its way to the very 
walls of Constantinople. Much of the early history of the 
country is legendary, and one of the famous stories is that after 
Igor, who commanded the great armies, was put to death by 
rebellious subjects, his widow sought out the territory where 
her husband had lost his life and pretending to make peace 
with them, requested every householder to give her a pigeon. 

WINGED FIREBRANDS. 

When they gladly complied with her request she sent the 
tame birds back home with flaming firebrands tied to their 
tails, and they entered their lofts or rests and started fires 
which destroyed the city of Korosten. The ascendancy of the 
Romanoff dynasty, which maintained in Russia through the 
centuries, was established through the atrocities of Ivan the 
Terrible, who is said to have absolutely destroyed the descen- 
dants of the Rurik, the first Norse chieftain. Ivan the Ter- 
rible was the first Czar of Russia. He conquered Servia and 
his domestic infamies and intrigues are among the historical 
scandals of the country. 

Through every reign in Russian history there ran stories 
of terrible crime, cruelties, infamies, immoralities and degra- 
dation. Following the death of Ivan the Terrible came Fedor, 
one of his sons, who was a weakling in the hands of the Duma 
^f five, one of whom was Boris Godounoff. Fedor reigned but 
a few years, and Godounoff was elected Czar. He was am- 




OUTLINE MAP OF THE BALKAN STATES. 
This drawing- shows the boundary lines as they were at the beginning 
of the war. It also shows the location of the principal city of each country. 
This part of the world has always been of great importance since the earliest 
history of man and nations — a continuous struggle between nations to con- 
trol this gateway into southwestern Asia. 

203 



204 THE NATIONS AT WAR. 

bitious, and was founder of the system of serfdom, and also of 

the Russian State Church, and like many of the other rulers of 

Russia, met death through infamy, supposedly having been 

poisoned. 

BASE IMPOSTER SLAIN. 

Boris Godounoff was succeeded by his son Feodor, but he 
was seized by a pretender, and with his mother, thrown into 
prison, where they were murdered. The discovery of the plot 
which was laid at the door of the King of Poland, produced an 
uprising and Czar Dimitry the Impostor, was slain. Vasili 
Shouyskie, leader of the mob that slew Dimitry, was pro- 
claimed Czar, but pretenders sprang up, and one of these, who 
posed as a false Dimitry, invaded Russia from Poland, and 
established a rival imperial court at Toushin, and some of the 
Russian cities swore allegiance to him. 

Vasili Shouyskie held out at Moscow, and after a time 
Dimitry's cause failed, whereupon Sigsmund, of Poland, in- 
vaded Russia, and put forward his son Vladislav. Vasili, 
roused to anger, committed acts which provoked Moscow, and 
in 1610 he was compelled to abdicate, and a council of nobles 
was formed to run the government until a Czar could be 
chosen. Vladislav was finally selected, but, Feodor Romanoff 
sought to prevent his being crowned. There was a period of 
anarchy, cities were burned, and chaos was complete. 

The dignitaries of the church and state finally set to work 
and supported the candidacy of Mikhial Feodorovitch Roman- 
off, who was the first Romanoff Czar. He reorganized the 
empire, and reigned for thirty-three years. His successor, 
Alexis, the direct heir, reigned for thirty-one years, and culti- 
vated friendly relations with Ukraine and the Cossack coun- 
try. He was followed by Feodor II, and then came Peter the 
Great. There were two claimants to the throne, Ivan and 
Peter, both sons of Alexis by separate wives, and the difficulty 
was settled by letting the two reign jointly under the regency 
of Sophia, a sister of Ivan. 



THE NATIONS AT WAE. 205 

When Ivan died Peter assumed the reins, and it was he 
who gave Russia a frontage on the Black Sea, and on the Bal- 
tic, and built St. Petersburg. He did much for the develop- 
ment of Russia, creating a navy and a merchantile marine. 

Catherine the First, his widow, followed him in reign, and 
at her death, Peter II occupied the center of the stage. At his 
death there was chaos again and counter claims. Anna of 
Courtland, a daughter of Ivan, brother of Peter the Great, 
was finally elected sovereign, but she was a mere puppet, vest- 
ing her authority in a High Council. 

FAMILY'S WRETCHED CAREER. 

During her reign her lover, named Biren, held sway and 
distinguished himself by sending thousands of political exiles 
to Siberia. At the death of Anna, Ivan IV, her grandnephew, 
reigned, but was deposed and sent to prison for life, while 
Elizabeth, youngest daughter of Peter the Great, succeeded 
him. She permitted the government to be run on compari- 
tively honest lines by favorites, and while they ruled she drank 
herself to death. 

Her nephew, Peter .III, succeeded her. He was incom- 
petent and a tool in the Prussian hands. His wife was a 
German princess, and led a movement which ended in his being 
deposed, imprisoned and murdered. 

Catherine, widow of the murdered Peter, succeeded. She 
was known as Catherine the Great, and is credited with having 
been the most infamous of women in all histoiy. Catherine 
was succeeded by Paul, who was assassinated by his own 
couriers when he was on the point of joining Napoleon Bona- 
parte in his conquest of India. 

His son was Alexander I, who added Finland and Poland 
to Russia, and founded the Holy Alliance. He was followed 
by his son Nicholas, who ruled for 30 years, and crushed the 
Poles and Hungarians, but died of a broken heart in the 
Crimean War. 



206 THE NATIONS AT WAR. 

Next came Alexander II, who gained fame as liberator 
of the serfs, and died the victim of a Nihilist bomb thrower. 
Alexander III succeeded him, and then came Nicholas II, the 
last Czar, whose reign lasted 22 years. The beginning of the 
end was marked by the request of the workingmen in 1905 for 
an increase in civil rights. They were fired upon, and there 
was general disorder, until the Czar proclaimed a constitution, 
and established a Duma, or national parliament, which met for 
the first time in 1906. 

BETRAYAL OF RUSSIA'S MILITARY PLANS. 

The outbreak of the war was marked by the personal 
decree of the Czar to change the name of the capital, St. Peters- 
burg, to Petrograd, but his evident intent to eliminate evidences 
of German influence did not stop the betrayal of Russia's 
military plans by German spys within the court circles, and 
it was charged that supplies were withheld from the Russian 
army by those within the charmed circle, who were friendly 
to Germany. 

Russia was a party to the Franco-Russian and Anglo- 
Russian agreement, which constituted the basis of the Triple 
Entente, but conditions were such that the soldiers refused to 
fight, and the situation culminated in the uprising which ended 
with the abdication of the Czar, in behalf of his brother, who, 
however, declined to accept the throne, unless he should be 
elected by the votes of the Russian people. The Duma there- 
upon decided to organize a republican form of government, 
and so the Russian Republic came into being in March, 1917. 

Spain, a fertile country in the southwestern part of 
Europe, has played a prominent part in the development of 
the world. She has a coastline extending nearly 1500 miles, 
and there are about 200,000 square miles included in her terri- 
tory. The coastlands and the southern section of the country 
are especially rich in fruits and agriculture. Although 



THE NATIONS AT WAR. 207 

watered by many rivers, the land, for the most part, is artifici- 
ally irrigated. 

Up until 1898 Spain held possession of magnificent colo- 
nies in Cuba and Porto Rico and the Philippines, but now her 
colonial possessions are confined to a strip on the west coast of 
the Sahara, and the island of Fernando Po, with some smaller 
possessions on the Guinea coast in Africa. Their total area is 
about 434,000 square miles, the total population being 
10,000,000. 

SPAIN, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Spain formerly composed the ancient provinces of New 
and Old Castile, Leon, Asturias, Galicia, Estremadura, 
Andalusia, Aragon, Murcia, Valencia, Catalonia, Navarre and 
the Basque Provinces. These, since 1834, have been divided 
into 49 provinces. The capital of Spain is Madrid, and the 
present constitution dates from 1876. There is a Congress, 
which is composed of deputies, each one representing 50,000 of 
the population. 

The Roman Catholic faith is the established form of 
religion, and the priesthood possesses considerable wealth and 
power, although the dominant influence once possessed has 
been curtailed of recent years. The peace strength of the 
army is about 83,000, and what navy she has is practically 
new, as the Spanish navy was annihilated in the war with the 
United States in 1898. 

During recent years the republican tendencies among the 
people have found vent in socialism. The Spanish socialist 
leaders belong mostly to the intellectuals, and here again is 
the weakness of the movement, whether considered as a means 
of giving Spain a republic or of liberating her political system 
undeir monarchical form. Some of the intellectual leaders 
among the socialists headed straight for philosophic anarchy, 
while others expended their energies in building castles in the 
clouds. 



208 THE NATIONS AT WAK. 

The substantial socialism of the recent period was, how- 
ever, based on the workingmen's movement. Before the out- 
break of the great war the tendency was to affiliate with the 
groups in other countries of Europe which advocated socialism 
as an international creed. But when the German socialists 
placed their country above internationalism, and the French 
socialists did the same, and the Italian socialists joined in the 
agitation to force the government into war to get back terri- 
tory lost to Austria, the international basis of Spanish socialism 
disappeared. 




©Underwood & Underwood. 
AT THE BASE OF THE CROSS. 
The figure of the Saviour which has fallen from the Cross that was shaken by the shells which fell 

all about the Cross. 




© Underwood & Underwood. 
A BELGIAN FAMILY IN FEONT OF THEIR RUINED HOMES. 
Three generations of Belgians are shown in this photograph of a family standing in front of their 
homes left in ruins by the shells of the German guns thrown into Thormondo. 




Photo American Press Ass'n. 
CANADIAN OFFICIAL PHOTOGRAPH FROM THE WESTERN FRONT. 
Showing a village that is being heavily bombarded. 




Photo American Press Ass'n. 
CANADIAN OFFICIAL PHOTOGRAPH FROM THE WESTERN FRONT. 
Troorjs interrupted during a service on occasion of 50th Anniversary of Dominion Day by the appear- 
ance of an airplane 




Photo American Press Ass'n. 
CANADIAN OFFICIAL PHOTOGRAPH FROM THE WESTERN FRONT. 
Showing the firing of naval guns behind the Canadian Infantry. 




Photo American Press Ass'n. 
CANADIAN OFFICIAL PHOTOGRAPH FROM THE WESTERN FRONT. 
Showing a German 5.9 gun put out of action by a direct hit by the Canadian Artillery. 




Photo American Press Ass'n. 



SAILORS OF BRAZIL. 



The Brazilian Congress, by an overwhelming majority, voted for war with Germany. Her navy 
will patrol the seas and help rid them of the U-boat menace. This photograph shows the type of 
Brazilian sailors on board the drcadnaught "Minas Geraes," the largest of Brazil's warships. 




©American Press Ass'n. 
FIJI ISLAND WARRIORS. 

They are under command of English officials, bound for France and the war zone. This photo- 
graph was taken while they stopped off at Honolulu, where they were feasted at Wajkiki beach by 
the British Club at H awaii. 




INDIANS HELP RECRUITING. 



Photo American Press Ass'n. 



Chief Bald Eagle and seven other Sioux Indians assisted in obtaining sixty new recruits 
for the U. S. Navy at the landship " Recruit," New York City. When they first arrived at the 
ship they seemed for a time more interested in the Indian corn in the model gardens and the 
machine guns on board the vessels, than anything else. 




Photo American Press Ass'n. 
EXCLUSIVE PHOTO OP THE DRAFT AT WASHINGTON 

This picture shows clearly Secretary of War Newton D. Baker drawing the first capsule that started 

the enormous draft for the Army. 




SCENE IN SWITZERLAND. 



©American Press Ass'n 



The fence in the background is the border line between Switzerland and Germany. Swiss soldiers are 
on guard as shown in the picture. 




GERMAN PRISONERS. 



©American Press Ass'n. 



This photo shows a small portion of the many thousands of captives taken by the Allied armies on 

the western front. 




Photo American Press Ass'n 
INDIAN COMPANY IN THE UNITED STATES ARMY. 
Company P, 6th Nebraska Infantry, Is composed of descendants of the warriors who 
annihilated General Custer's command and of the sons and grandsons of the scouts who 
served with Buffalo Bill and General Miles. The Winnebago, Omaha, Sentee Sioux and 
Yankton Sioux tribes are represented. 




Pboto American Press Ass'n. 
PARADE OF AMERICAN TROOPS IN LONDON. 
This photograph shows the soldiers passing down Piccadilly through two lines of cheer- 
Ins populace. 




Photo American Press Ass'n. 



A SUBMARINE CHASER. 



Eternal vigilance is the watchword of these patrols. This photo shows a new type of 
glider, which keeps a constant watch in the waters adjacent to Entente seaports. It never 
leaves the water. At a signal from scouting airplanes it skims over the surface with start- 
ling rapidity toward the point where the submarine is seen. 




© American Press Ass'n. 
AN AEROPLANE MACHINE GUN. 
This is a photograph of Captain Bishop, a Canadian aviator with the British forces. 
He is seen examining the gun that has accounted for nearly forty German aeroplanes in 
this war. 



CHAPTER XII. 

MODERN WAR METHODS. 

Individual Initiative as Against Mass Movements — Trench Warfare a Game 
of Hide and Seek — Eats and Disease — Surgery's Triumphs — Changed Tac- 
tics — Italian Mountain Fighting. 

WARFARE such as carried on in the Great World War 
is so different from that of any other of the great wars 
which the world has seen, that it might be described as 
a method of fighting distinctively unique. Undoubtedly, more 
ancient methods, and even ancient weapons, have been em- 
ployed than were used in any of the wars which have changed, 
from time to time, the boundary lines of nations. The fighting 
of mass against mass has been practically obliterated, and mod- 
ern evolutions where the plan is man to man have developed 
a mode of fighting where terrible execution has resulted. 

Undoubtedly this means of fighting has developed the per- 
sonal initiative of the soldiers, and the modern fighting ma- 
chine of the nations is of a high standard, which, together with 
death-dealing weapons, has resulted in terrible havoc. 
Massed movements, such as carried on in the War of the Re- 
bellion, have been practically done away with, and although 
there have been long and costly sieges, they have been carried 
on by tedious trench fighting, airships, hand grenades, and 
massive shells fired from guns of great caliber, and with a 
range which is really marvellous. 

Shells are fired, shrapnel in some cases, explosive shells in 
others, which are timed to the second, so that when fired from 
guns many miles from the objective point, they explode at a 
measured distance from the earth. They are exploded within 
a gauged distance of the target, and the execution is done over 
a measured area. On the shells are indicators. Within the 
shrapnel shells are hundreds of small shot. As the shell ex- 

HR 14 209 



210 MODERN WAR METHODS. 

plodes the shots are scattered over the enemy, and death and 
destruction are unavoidable. 

With bomb shells, fired from guns of the largest caliber, 
there are also indicators which are timed to the second. The 
range and time of explosion previously figured out by officers, 
the shell explodes where it is intended that it shall, and the 
work of the great explosive is done with resultant damage. 

WAR'S MANY DEVELOPMENTS. 

The war has developed many of the new methods of fight- 
ing and revived many of the old means of warfare. Cavalry 
has not been as active in the relation in the great war as in any 
of the wars of comparatively recent date, because of the ex- 
tensive trench warfare which has formed so much of the fight- 
ing plan. Fighting has been a question of trench raids, and 
barrage fire, followed by the infantry charge through shell 
holes. The impression brought home to the modern observer 
is that the older recognized methods of warfare are gone for 
good. 

The thing which war changed in the work of the cavalry- 
man is in the nature of an addition, rather than a subtraction 
from his duties and the training he must have. The day of 
cavalry — as cavalry and nothing else — has passed. For today 
the cavalryman must be familiar not only with the sword, lance 
and revolver, but with the rifle as well. It has been demon- 
strated that such long periods of trench warfare may develop 
that it becomes necessary for him to dismount and make him- 
self valuable in the scheme of military economy by fighting as 
infantry until such time as the enemy line is broken and he can 
again take to his horse and the work of harrying the retreat- 
ing foe. 

The war has been full of surprising results as regards cav- 
alry. It was popularly supposed that in facing such terrible 
modern weapons as the repeating rifle of long range, the ma- 
chine gun and the automatic field pieces which have become so 



MODERN WAR METHODS. 211 

well known as the French "75s," any body of cavalry which 
attempted to charge the enemy would be annihilated. 

CAVALRY'S SUCCESSFUL CHARGES. 

Yet all through the early stages of the war one reads of 
desperate, and, what is more to the point, successful charges 
made by British cavalry against batteries of German field 
pieces. There was one instance in France, just back of the 
Belgian frontier, where a charge of British lancers against a 
German battery, which had a commanding position, saved the 
day for a greatly-outnumbered allied detachment, which was 
conducting that most difficult of all maneuvers, a rear guard 
action, covering the retreat of the body of the army. The 
charge of the lancers took the Germans so by surprise, and was 
executed with such speed, that despite the heavy fire they 
poured into the advancing horsemen the latter were at work 
among them with spear and saber before reinforcements could 
be brought up. Then the cavalry, dismounting and unslinging 
their carbines, defended the position with such tenacity that the 
German advance was delayed several hours, sufficient for the 
rest of the allied forces to make good its withdrawal and the 
consolidation of the new lines chosen for defense. 

This idea of cavalry serving in the double role of infantry 
and cavalry is a distinctly American development, a trick which 
the Federal and Confederate armies taught the world during 
the Civil War, and of which the British made excellent use in 
South Africa against the Boers. The fact which this war has 
established, however, is that the older use of cavalry, in the 
charge against infantry, artillery and even entrenched posi- 
tions is still of great value. The idea had developed from the 
tactics so largely employed in the Civil War of using the cav* 
airy as mounted infantry, that the increased deadliness of 
modern weapons would make this us>? of cavalry the sole use. 

Now, however, it seems that not even the lance is to be 
discounted. Given the opportunity to reach his objective, the 



212 MODERN WAR METHODS. 

lance becomes a terrible weapon in the hands of the horseman. 
In hand-to-hand fighting the man with the rifle and bayonet 
has some chance against the mounted man with the saber. 
While fighting upward from a lower level he has a pretty long 
reach, and the advantage of being completely in control of his 
own movements, whereas even the most expert horseman can- 
not control the step and movement of his mount as well as a 
man can control his own. Barring fire, however, the infantry- 
man has no chance against the lance, with the speed and mo- 
mentum of the mounted man behind it. 

So, for this reason, though they are cumbersome weapons 
under ordinary circumstances, and make a detachment equip- 
ped with them much more likely to be seen, lances were re- 
tained by many of the British cavalry regiments, just as the 
(German Uhlans retained them. 

CAVALRY'S IMPORTANT SERVICE. 

One of the most important services which cavalry fulfills 
in modern warfare is that of drawing the enemy's fire at the 
time his positions are being approached. This is done to ob- 
tain some idea of his force and the disposition of his guns. 

Cavalry detachments are sent scurrying across the front, 
as though threatening an attack, deliberately furnishing a mark 
for the enemy gunners that this object of ascertaining his 
strength may be attained. 

The more ordinary work of scouting, advance guard work, 
and riding wide on the flanks of an advancing force are parts 
of the cavalryman's work which are more familiar. 

In the European conflict with tremendous concentration of 
troops and continued occupation of the same territory the for- 
aging feature of cavalry work disappeared. It is no longer 
possible for an army to "live on the country as it goes." Food 
and supplies must be brought up from depots in the rear 
through an entirely separate and specialized department of the 
military organization, which does its work with a celerity cer- 



MODERN WAR METHODS. 213 

tainly undreamed of in former days, even as late as our own 
war with Spain. 

In the modern campaign trenches have been developed to 
such an extent that it is really marvellous how the soldiers live, 
and to what an extent the "underground fortresses" have been 
used for living as well as fighting purposes. 

In a letter written by a French soldier who took part in a 
successful raid upon a German trench, he adequately describes 
the luxuries enjoyed by the German soldiers in the front line 
trenches in the Marne. The letter was written by a youth who 
had been wounded in the fight, and was mailed in April, 1917. 

LUXURIOUS DUGOUTS. 

"We are now living in German lines and dugouts — a mag- 
nificent work we have just now taken — cement and steel are 
used with profusion, and electricity in every dugout, even in 
their front lines. Unharmed casements and machine guns in 
cemented shelters and light railways and immense reserves of 
food — thousands of bottles of claret. 

"But also, at the middle of each staircase, in the wall, a 
box with about seventy pounds of cheddite — to blow the shelter 
up in case of retreat. They knew they might have to go back, 
as they are doing now. America will gain victory, as until the 
present moment only the bravery of our soldiers can put them 
back, with much exertion and frequent loss. 

"Our men are magnificent in spite of death. We hope 
your help may be quick and decisive. I think your flying corps 
especially may be useful, the more as yesterday, with four fel- 
lows, I was run through the field, and in a destroyed trench by 
a German Albatross shooting a machine gun, and flying very 
low, he missed us quite near. On the other hand, we have just 
a few days hence seen a sausage balloon destroyed by our men. 
Anyhow your help may be decisive. 

"I believe your joy is great about the Russian revolution. 



214 MODERN WAR METHODS. 

At home they are happy, too — only let us hope the Russian 
army may attack this summer — to help us. 

"I need not tell you the impression made by your Ameri- 
can decision here. We now know victory is sure. Let us hope 
it may be this year — though you may easily guess such is not 
my belief — next year. 

"I hope my next letter be sent from farther in the Ger- 
man lines — perhaps from a place they have not had time to 
destroy." 

Shorn of all technicalities, the plain method of warfare 
which has developed as the result of the trench building is that 
each force establishes lines along miles of front with trenches 
in rows, one after the other, at measured intervals. The sol- 
diers are thus "entrenched." One force seeks to drive the other 
from its position. 

MANY DEADLY DEVICES. 

The force of batteries is directed against the entrench- 
ments, hand grenades, bombs, shells, gases and every device 
which has fallen to the use of armies is projected at the ditches 
in which are hidden the enemy soldiers. When, by the con- 
centration of attack the trenches are destroyed or the soldiers 
driven from their first position, the opposing force has gained 
if it has succeeded in advancing its own soldiers to occupy and 
reconstruct the trenches or defences from which the enemy was 
driven. 

The soldiers carry, in addition to the ordinary weapons, 
a trench spade, and in most cases large knives, which are used 
to cut away brush or dig in the earth when emergency demands. 
The close confinement in the trenches tends to develop disease, 
and the sanitary force of the modern army is a thing that was 
undreamed of in the olden days. More men died from disease 
during the Civil War than were killed by bullets or in hand-to- 
hand encounter. 

The percentage of those who die from camp fever has been 



MODERN WAR METHODS. 215 

reduced to a minimum. Napoleon said that armies travel on 
their stomachs, but the European War and the Russian-Jap- 
anese War have proven, as did our campaigns in Cuba and 
Mexico, that soldiers live by reason of the health which they 
are permitted to maintain. Some idea of the conditions which 
developed in the trenches may be gained from a study of the 
various hospital reports, and investigations which have been 
made by physicians. 

INFECTED WITH ASIATIC JAUNDICE. 

Dr. Hideyo Noguchi, of the Rockefeller Institute for 
Medical Research, completed a series of experiments which 
showed that apparently healthy wild rats in the European war 
zone became infected with Weil's disease, or "infectious jaun- 
dice," common in Asia. Weil's disease is characterized by sud- 
den onsets of malaise, often intense muscular pain, high fever 
for several days, followed by jaundice, frequently accompanied 
by complications. It becomes more virulent as it is successively 
transmitted from one victim to another. This is supposed to 
explain the much greater mortality, about 88 per cent, in 
Japan, as compared with from 2 to 3 per cent, among Euro- 
pean soldiers. 

The study of the disease was made possible by the suc- 
cessful importation from Japan and Flanders of guinea pigs 
and rats which had been inoculated with the causative organism 
in those two countries. Experiments previously made showed 
that the germ of the disease was carried in the kidneys of a 
large percentage of apparently healthy wild rats caught near 
the districts where the disease had been epidemic. Experi- 
ments in Europe demonstrated the presence of the germ in 
rats not only near the infected zones, but also in captured lo- 
calities some distance from trenches. 

For purposes of comparison Dr. Noguchi collected a num- 
ber of rats in this country and removed their kidneys. His 
report states that by inoculating the emulsion made of the kid- 



216 MODERN WAR METHODS. 

neys of 41 wild rats into 58 guinea pigs during a period of 
three months, he had been able to produce in three groups of 
guinea pigs typical cases of infectious jaundice altogether iden- 
tical with the findings in the guinea pigs which died of the 
injection of the Japanese and Belgian strains of the disease. 
The germs taken from wild rats caught near New York pro- 
duced death in guinea pigs within nine to twelve days. 

AMERICA'S GREAT SERVICE IN WAR ZONE. 

In studying the conditions and helping to fight the dan- 
gers encountered in the battlefields and camps of Europe, no 
country in the world rendered a greater service than America. 
Long before the country entered the war hundreds of Ameri- 
can nurses, ambulance drivers and surgeons were on the battle- 
fields and in the hospitals of Belgium, France and England. 
Men who were leaders in the medical and surgical world gave 
their services to the Allies, and almost every hospital in the 
United States sent some of its staff. 

Through the efforts and study of Dr. Alexis Carrel, of 
New York, deaths from wounds received in battle were re- 
duced almost 90 per cent, by a system of treatment which he 
devised. Dr. Carrel began his work in 1914, at Compiegne, 
in connection with the military hospital, and in collaboration 
with the Dakin Research Laboratory, under the auspices of the 
Rockefeller Foundation. 

Using a solution of sodium hypochlorite, the plain method 
of treating wounds which proved such a great boon, was de- 
scribed at the Congress of Surgeons in Philadelphia in 1916, 
where many of the wonders of war surgery were described. 
By means of a rubber tube, which is run through or into the 
wound, the injury is flushed continuously by the solution, for 
a period of hours or minutes, according to the nature and char- 
acter of the wound. 

The inflammation is reduced, the wound cleaned, and 
blood poisoning is averted. Under the treatment the soldier's 



MODEKN WAR METHODS. 217 

stay in a hospital is reduced weeks and even months, and, as 
has been stated with authority, where in the old days twenty 
operations would have been necessary, the modern methods 
have reduced the percentage to a point where the twenty has 
become as one. 

The story of surgery itself and what it has done in mod- 
ern warfare would make a wonderful volume. The shattered 
bones of the legs and arms have been spliced, and laid side by 
side in open wounds, to knit together and practically form a 
new limb. Artificial hands, feet, and legs have been made by 
ingenious mechanics, which are so perfect that those who have 
been deprived of their natural facilities can use them with a 
degree of facility never before believed possible. 

RESULT OF SCIENTIFIC SURGERY. 

Armless men and legless men have worked in the munition 
factories of both France and of England, and the fact that they 
are able to do so is due to the genius of surgeons and of scien- 
tists. Thoroughness and preparation, coolness in execution 
and scientific accuracy in all directions is the modern necessity 
in warfare. 

What this means in modern battle, as demonstrated in the 
last important conflict in the clearing of German East Africa 
by British forces, was decribed by Reuters' correspondent in 
an account of the battle of Rufiji River. 

This was the last campaign personally commanded by 
Major General Jan Christian Smuts, the former Boer com- 
mander, and resulted in giving the British control of all the 
coastline and the inhabitable portion of German East Africa. 

For two weary months the army lay upon its weapons, 
consolidating, reorganizing, rebuilding railway lines and pil- 
ing up great dumps of food and ridding itself of its sick and 
wounded. Then it moved forward from Morogoro. The ob- 
ject of the advance was the ejection of the enemy from his 



218 MODERN WAR METHODS. 

trenches on the Mgeta River and the seizure of the passages 
of the Rufiji River. 

The battle was directed and controlled from an observa- 
tion hill at Dathumi, but General Smuts spent little time on 
the hill. He had made all the dispositions and issued his orders. 
Nothing remained for him to do and he was back in his camp 
calmly reading a book. 

In the straw hut the brigadier general sat at a table on 
which was an oriented map showing the strategic and geo- 
graphical points of the plans which lay before us, at his elbow 
the telephone and just below the hut the wireless instrument 
incessantly emitted sparks. Higher up the slope of the hill 
were the observing stations of the battery commanders. 
SIGNALED BEGINNING OF BATTLE. 

The burning of huts at Kiruru signaled the beginning of 
the battle. The brigadier general, a polite little man who has 
lectured at the staff college for twenty years and who knows 
the last word in the science of warfare, especially of artillery, 
called the howitzer battery by telephone. 

"Open fire a little to the right of the palm tree," he said. 
"You have the elevation and direction. The Nigerians will be 
on the move." Just behind the palm tree and a little to the 
right a great brown cloud of mud and smoke rose high in the 
air. From the plain came the boom of heavy guns and all 
along the river branch rose clouds of smoke, mud and dust. 

The staff officer handed in a telegram reading: "The in- 
fantry are now about to advance; they ask artillery support." 

"Bring the field guns into action," said the general. 

It was all so very matter of fact. This little man, who 
was about to let loose upon the German trenches a hell's broth 
of fire and disaster, acted as if he were in his own drawing 
room, deciding how many lumps of sugar he would take with 
his tea. 

Down below on the plain the howitzers were lobbing 60- 



MODERN WAR METHODS. 219 

pound shells into the German Askaris, the Nigerians were ad- 
vancing by sharp rushes and the rat-tat of the machine guns 
and the crackle of musketry broke very faintly. Airplanes 
sailed above us. A message came from the Nigerians, "We 
are going to take the enemy's trenches; please lift gunfire." 
The order was passed along, "All guns lift two degrees." 

Little black dots, like tiny ants, are running where the 
shells are bursting. The Nigerians are rushing the trenches. 
The forward observing officer reports that the enemy is re- 
tiring. The 15-pounders, man-killing guns, shower shrapnel 
on the German line of retreat. 

SUGGESTS A GUP OF TEA. 

The infantry report having occupied the German first line 
trenches, halting for one hour to consolidate. The brigadier- 
general commented on the difficulty of observation in the hu- 
mid atmosphere and suggested a .cup of tea. It seemed that 
nothing more would happen until after lunch, so I visited the 
commander-in-chief. He was occupied for the moment with 
a volume by George Gisslog and was satisfied with the reports 
he had received. By dark the whole of the German entrench- 
ments were in our hands. 

A volume could be written alone on the changes in tactics 
which have been developed and practiced by the military 
geniuses of the contending forces. In the European War the 
range of artillery and infantry fire was three times what it was 
in the Franco-Prussian War. The flattening of the trajec- 
tory, which means making the bullets go more nearly on a 
straight line instead of traveling in an arc, has made the fire 
so effective as to compel the soldiers to "travel on their stom- 
achs." To crawl along the ground like alligators, or advance 
like moles digging their way into the earth. 

The tremendous range of the modern rifle, single arm, or 
rapidfire gun, and the development of more powerful explo- 
sives for ammunition have wrought this change. The bullet will 



220 MODEKN WAE METHODS. 

travel a longer distance at a horizontal position than in the old 
days when ordinary black powder and a smooth-bore gun were 
used, and so at hundreds of yards distance the soldiers can aim 
direct to kill, without making elevation allowances. 

The machine gun has made it possible for the men to fire 
from four to five shots for every one that was fired in the 
Franco-Prussian War and probably ten for ever}' one that was 
fired in the Civil War. The only time the soldiers exposed 
themselves on the army frontiers were when they were storm- 
ing trenches, and this was not attempted until the trench had 
suffered bombardment so it was made untenable. 

DIFFICULT MOUNTAIN FIGHTING 

Probably nothing in the warfare of nations has been more 
colorful and replete with surprises than the campaign waged 
by the Italian soldiers on the Alpine passes between Italy and 
the Austrian strongholds, and in the discussion of modern war- 
fare, a brief description of some of the work of these intrepid 
mountain fighters is interesting. 

Much of tliis fighting has been the most difficult known 
in the annals of modern warfare, save, perhaps, that done by 
the famous Younghusband British Expedition to Thibet. And 
that, by comparison, was a very small matter. 

The mere height — altitude — at which the Italian warfare 
against the Austrians was carried on has been sufficient to en- 
tail enormous difficulties and a great additional strain, due act- 
ually to difficult breathing in a rarefied atmosphere. 

The warfare in the clouds which has characterized the 
struggle along the Isonzo front has been conducted at an alti- 
tude seldom less than 8,000 and often rising to 12,000 feet, 
which is well within the realm of eternal snow. 

Xaturally, therefore, most of the fighting was done in 
bitter cold. To this fact add the other that the Italian soldiers 
who carried it on were almost exclusively men who had not 
been accustomed to the cold. They had been drawn from 



MODERN WAR METHODS. 221 

among dwellers in a semitropical climate, and one gets an idea 
of the immense accomplishments of this army which struggled 
in the skies. 

The average American knows the Italian as immensely 
industrious, but perhaps is disinclined to credit him with great 
constructive ability or engineering genius. He would change 
his estimate of him if he could see him fight and study his bat- 
tlefield. The Italian warfare of the mountain peak and 
gorges has been a warfare of construction, even more than it 
has been a warfare of destruction, and has been rendered pos- 
sible only by the exercise of engineering genius comparable 
with that which sent our world-beating American railways 
through the famous Hocky Mountain passes ! 

HALTED BY INTIMIDATION. 

The fact that Italy's warfare has been invariably against 
positions stronger than her own is the result of the fact that 
while, since 1866, Austria continually strengthened her frontier 
with fortifications, most of them of ferro-concrete, the Italians 
were not able to fortify at all. Every step in that direction 
brought forth threats of war. These began at a time when 
Italy was in no condition to fight, before, as a unified nation, 
she became a world-power. 

Being weak, she was prevented from making any prepa- 
rations for defense against a foe which continually was ob- 
viously getting ready for attack upon her. The mere com- 
mencement of preparations might have precipitated war. But 
Austria continually prepared. Besides, the Italians ever have 
been a peace-loving nation. 

As a natural and inevitable consequence of all these con- 
ditions all the dominating positions along the Austro-Italian 
frontier were strongly fortified by the Austrians. They have 
long occupied the crest of every mountain in such a way that 
their guns could rake any Italian approach from below, along 
a front of 450 miles — about the distance from New York to 



222 MODERN WAR METHODS. 

Buffalo, and almost the same as that of the whole French- 
British-Belgian eastern front in this war. 

During the winter of 1916, one of the most exceptionally 
hard winters known in the annals of the Italian Weather Serv- 
ice, the Italians not only have been fighting for their sunny 
homeland, but have been fighting in a region of eternal snow. 

This snow was an obstacle extremely hard to overcome. 
It may be said never to have been less than six yards deep on 
the Isonzo front, so the task of the consolidation of positions, 
enabling troops at once to resist attack and protect themselves 
from assault from the rear, was highly difficult. 
TYPICAL ROAD BUILDERS. 

The Italians were ever road-builders, descendants, as they 
are, of those Romans who built roads for all Europe. While 
the Austrians were fully supplied with roads of the best and 
most modern character, there were hundreds of miles on the 
Italian side where there were not even mule-tracks. 

Here was a vast problem. 

Literally millions of soldiers were not free to fight, but 
had been drafted for the road-building work. Carrying picks 
and shovels, managing steam-shovels, working electric hoists, 
stringing supporting cables, they were as truly fighting men, 
however, as any who ever bore rifles or worked machine-guns. 

Miles of the roads were rebuilt under Austrian fire, by 
men who built them well enough, even in the great 8,000-foot 
heights, that they could bear heavy artillery of vast weights 
without suffering damage. They built them in such easy gra- 
dients that heavy artillery could be moved speedily, the guns 
and motor-lorries that passed over them frequently weighing 
as much as fifteen tons. 

Nor did the problem end with the construction of these 
marvel-roads. It was necessary to transport very heavy war 
material across stretches where the building of any roads what- 
ever was a sheer impossibility. Often it was necessary to take 



MODERN WAR METHODS. 223 

heavy guns as far as might be upon sleighs and then drag them 
for considerable distances by hand ; quite as often it was impera- 
tive that across chasms great cables should be rigged on which 
the guns might be swung, sometimes hundreds or even thou- 
sands of feet above the valleys beneath, from one height to 
another. 

The "wireways" by which much of this unique transporta- 
tion was accomplished are of Italian invention, as were other 
notable and essential engineering devices of this great war of 
mountain transportation. 

Such contrivances, known as "teleferrica," were intro- 
duced for the first time during the winter of 1916, and by sum- 
mer there were about 200 along the mountainous front. They 
not only supplied very advanced positions with armament, 
ammunition and food, but transported men back and forth 
between them and lower points. 

SYSTEM ONE OF TACKLES. 

The system was one of tackles (where guns and other 
heavy freight were to be moved) or cars (like cradles, where 
men were to be moved), operated by motor-pulleys directly 
connected up with great electric power. One of the most aston- 
ishing and picturesque uses to which these aerial wireways were 
put was the movement downward of men wounded at the 
advanced posts with which the teleferrica communicate. 

To see wounded men going down these wireways, mere 
dots, each representing a suspended stretcher upon which a 
suffering human being is strapped securely, was described as 
one of the most amazing spectacles of the whole war. The 
experience, to some wounded men, swinging sickeningly, dizzy- 
ingly alone in midair, was probably more terrifying than actual 
fighting, although there were few, if any, accidents connected 
with the wireways. 

Not infrequently these wireways were within direct range 
of the enemy fire, and that complicated matters. So far as is 



224 MODERN WAR METHODS. 

known, there has been no instance of a cable cut by gunfire, but 
in several districts it was necessary that the men, going to their 
duty and the wounded going backward, having done theirs, 
must needs be protected in armored baskets, somewhat like 
those which often are swung beneath observation balloons on 
the various fronts. 

PROBLEMS OF TRANSPORTATION. 

The problems of transportation, great as they are, are by 
no means the only unique difficulties presented to these brave 
mountain fighters. In this extraordinary warfare mining by 
means of high explosives was carried on upon a hitherto un- 
equaled scale. Such work with high explosives was not only 
continually necessary in the construction of roads and fortifi- 
cations in a region of solid rock, but sometimes proved the only 
effective means of attack upon the enemy. 

The mine was used as an offensive weapon by both sides, 
and often with very terrible results. 

Perhaps the most extraordinary of the campaign was the 
mine laid by the Italians after infinitely difficult and very ex- 
tensive tunneling in solid rock at the Cima del Col di Lana. 

This immense effort with explosives blew off the whole top 
of a mountain — and that mountaintop was thickly occupied by 
Austrians at the time of the explosion of the mine. None on 
the Italian side knows exactly what the Austrian casualties 
were, but it is certain that through this one explosion more than 
an entire company — that is, more than 400 — of the enemy's 
soldiers were destroyed. 

An interesting detail of this operation is the fact that 
while the Italians were tunneling for this great mine they were 
perfectly aware that the Austrians also were at work upon a 
similar effort. It amounted to a race with death, and the 
Italians won it. 

Correspondents agree that the thing which most impresses 
the visitor to the mountain fronts of the Italian army is the 



MODERN WAR METHODS. 225 

immense patience which it has shown in the face of the difficult 
tasks of this astonishing campaign. Italians usually are re- 
garded as temperamental creatures, but "dogged" has been the 
word which has meant most in this campaign. 

Some of the movements of troops across exposed snow- 
covered spaces have been marvels of incredible patience. To 
escape observation the soldiers have been clad in white clothing, 
but in addition to this it has been necessary for them to lie flat 
upon their faces in the snow, moving very, very slowly, accom- 
plishing their transfers from point to point literally at snail 
speed. 

With regard to such work, as with regard to the Italian 
wounded, one thing is remarked by all the officers and those 
who have been privileged even for a short time to share the 
hardships of the Italian "common soldier." He never com- 
plains. Healthy or hurt, weary or fresh, he takes war with a 
smile full of flashing teeth and with eyes glittering with interest 
and good nature. 



H R— 15 



CHAPTER XIII 

WOMAN AND THE WAR. 

She has Won " Hee Place in the Sun " — Bich and Pooe in the Munitions 

FaCTOEEES — NUBSE AND AMBULANCE DBIVEB — KHAKI AND TeOUSEES OrGAN- 

IZEE AND FaBMEB — HEROES IN THE STEESS OF ClECUMSTANCES — DOING MEN'S 

Woek foe Men — Even a " Bobbie." 

IF IT were ever really necessary for woman to "win a place 
in the sun" she has done so by her activities with relation 

to the war. We have regarded woman with a high degree 
of sentimentality, and to her pleas for recognition in world 
affairs have shrugged our shoulders and intimated that she was 
fit to bear children, nurse the sick, do household chores and 
cook, cook, cook; but physically, mentally and by training she 
was unfit to perform the greater world duties. 

But the world war has proved that all the tasks which men 
claimed women were unfitted to perform can as well be done by 
what we have been pleased to term the "weaker sex." 

The war has proved a truism that old saying, "The hand 
that rocks the cradle rules the world," and also that the burden 
of war falls upon women. It is they who give up their sons to 
their country and send their husbands and boys to the front to 
serve as fodder for the cannon. 

In England the work of women in the war secured for 
them a degree of recognition in Parliament which all of their 
agitation and militant tactics failed to produce. 

National extremity was woman's opportunity; frank in- 
vitation to new lines of work was followed by hearty apprecia- 
tion on the part of the men; and a proposition to extend suf- 
frage to 6,000,000 English women was based avowedly upon 
the general gratitude felt for their loyal and effective service in 
the war. And it is war service, for modern warfare has greatly 
enlarged the content of that term. In the modern conception 

226 



WOMAN AND WAR. 227 

those who make munitions or in other ways release others for 
the front are doing war service as truly as those who bear arms. 
Instead of yielding to fame a few isolated Mollie Pitchers, 
the war brought a largely neglected half of the nation's mili- 
tary strength into practical service. Indeed, though woman 
dreads war more than man does, if it comes to actual defense 
of land and home and young, we find, with Kipling, that "the 
female of the species is more deadly than the male." 

THE WORK OF WOMEN. 

The work of the women in the munitions factories in Eng- 
land has deservedly attracted large attention, and, doubtless, 
British historians will for centuries tell how, when England 
found herself utterly at a loss before her enemies because of a 
lack of effective ammunition, the women responded "as one 
man" to meet the need and save the Union Jack from being 
forced to the shore. It was a repetition, multiplied 10,000 
times, of the Presbyterian parson at Springfield, N". J., supply- 
ing Washington's army with Watts hymn books when it was 
retreating to serve as paper wadding for the rifles. 

The innovation of the task, the large scale on which it was 
carried out and the striking success of it make it a major event 
of the war, even to be compared with the battle of the Mame. 
And shall not American historians ascribe to the scores of 
young girls who lost their lives in an explosion at Eddystone, 
Pa., making munitions, the honor of being the first martyrs of 
the German- American War? 

It was not alone the working girls of England who tired 
Iheir arms and calloused their hands on the heavy shells. When 
the work was at its full capacity, a proposition was sent to the 
women of leisure to undergo three weeks of training in a muni- 
tions factory and then take up the work at the week-ends to 
relieve the regular workers, the women shell machinists, whose 
strength and skill could best be maintained by saving them 
from Saturday and Sunday overtime. 



228 WOMAN AND THE WAR 

There was a strange incongruity in paying them less than 
the men for the same work. They worked in eight-hour shifts 
and were required to stand, except during a single half -hour 
interval. The prospectus of instruction suggested short skirts, 
thick gloves and boots with low heels, adding that evening 
dress would not be necessary. 

Hotel accommodations were attempted for these "lady" 
Workers, but this proved inadequate, and part of them went to 
the lodgings with the regular workers. Short skirts were only 
the first step that promptly led to overalls, and when these 
English ladies, whom the girls called "Miaows," got well 
grimed with dust and grease, utterly tired out with handling 
12-pound shells and hungry enough to prefer coarse food, they 
understood the workgirls as never before, and the men, too, and 
they had a new birth of patriotism. One lady said she found 
great relief and enthusiasm by thinking of the shells as so many 
dead Bodies or live Tommies. 

VARIED OCCUPATIONS OF WOMEN. 

Making ammunition and hospital supplies,' handling lug- 
gage and trunks in baggage rooms, driving motors, conducting 
trolley cars, carpentry work on wooden houses for the front, 
are but a few of the occupations in which European women 
engaged in war service. They have served as lift attendants, 
ticket sellers, post office sorters, mail carriers, gardeners, dairy 
lassies, grocery clerks, drivers of delivery wagons and vans, 
commissionaires. More than a million were added to the in- 
dustrial workers in England during the first two years of war. 

America coming later into the war, its women naturally 
followed the lead of the English and French along many lines 
tried and proved to be worth while, but our matrons and maids, 
famed for their independence and initiative, developed also new 
lines of patriotic effort. As soon as it was evident that German 
ambitions included designs upon America, the strong feminine 
instinct for preservation began to assert itself. Pacifism had 



WOMAN AND THE WAR. 229 

no special appeal to the gentler sex at such a time. She got 
behind the recruiting as if it were her own job, and much of the 
success of it was due to her efforts. 

The Woman's Section of the Navy League may well be 
described by quoting from its own statement of motive and 
purpose. "Every mother with sons, every wife with husband, 
every sister with a brother, feels her heart stand still with the 
horror of what war may bring to her." 

WOMAN'S MANY SERVICES. 

These women spread information to arouse interest in the 
condition of the United States naval forces, aided recruiting 
for the Naval Reserve, assisted in procuring enrollments for 
the Naval Coast Reserve, and drawing on their resources pro- 
vided many needed articles of clothing, equipment and comfort 
not furnished by the Government. A knitting committee 
makes sleeveless jackets, helmets, wristlets and mufflers. Com- 
fort kits, games, blankets, underwear, rubber hats, coats 
and boots are made or bought by the Comfort and Supplies 
Committee. 

The two poles of patriotic service are the production of 
food and fighting at the front; a world of activity bulges be- 
tween them. European women are accustomed to farm labor. 
Millions of peasant women, serfs, all but in name, under the 
late Russian regime; Balkan women, German and French 
wives and girls, and, to some extent, the mothers and daugh- 
ters of the English poor, would have understood Markham's 
poem better if he had called it, "The Woman With the Hoe." 

In the war food crisis the women of America matched the 
women of the enemy and vied with those of their own allies in 
persuading mother earth to yield her bounty. In heavy shoes, 
trousers of jean, rolled-up sleeves and a straw hat, the girls of 
America here and there turned to the land and took hold of the 
tasks of the farm. 

So far we have mentioned only the work at home that 



230 WOMAN AND THE WAR. 

women took up for the war, but this is only a part; the other 
pole finds them near. The invaluable service of Red Cross 
nurses, their zeal and sacrifice and sometimes martyrdom, from 
Elizabeth Fry and Florence Nightingale to Edith Cavell, have 
been women's glory for more than half a century. This war 
multiplied the need many times and veritable regiments of 
them responded. Their emblem became the symbol universal 
of mercy, charity and good will. 

In addition to the 50 trained nurses for a base hospital, 
there are 25 hospital aids, who serve without pay. America 
has 8000 registered Red Cross nurses and scores of thousands 
are in training for aids. 

The effective and helpful work of women in all lines of 
endeavor, aside from home and family life, has never before 
been shown so impressively as now. Their energy, willingness, 
faithfulness and capability in every activity are unsurpassed. 

WOMAN BENT ON DOING HER UTMOST. 

But woman shares the lot of mankind on earth, and in the 
issues of life and death, land and home, she fears to do less than 
her most, and we would fear to have her do less. 

The woman for ages has been the war nurse, but the Amer- 
ican woman has gone a step further and qualified as the war 
physician. When the war clouds first hovered over America 
more than 200 women physicians formally offered their serv- 
ices to the Government. At the graduation exercises of a 
women's medical college, when America first entered the war, 
a prominent official made the statement that 3,000 women 
physicians could find unlimited work of mercy behind the first 
line of firing in Europe. 

The surgeon general of the United States army did not 
await an actual call to arms to notify a physician that the 
proffer of the services of women physicians would be accepted 
when the need came. 



WOMAN AND THE WAR. 231 

"When I spoke to the women," said this physician, "I 
asked them this question : 

' 'Can I tell the Government that it may count upon each 
and all of you for any work within your power ?' 

"Their answer was unanimous. It was 'Yes.' " 

There is a law prohibiting women from going aboard bat- 
tleships when they are under way, but such an obstacle has not 
stood in the way of woman's desire to help where she can when 
her country calls, and so Miss Loretta Walsh became a mem- 
ber of the United States navy — the first woman enlisted in that 
branch of the service, with the exception of the nurses' corps. 
Her title was chief yeoman. 

Women announced their readiness to assist in another way 
— in economizing — one organization having adopted the fol- 
lowing resolutions : 

RESOLUTION ON ECONOMICS. 

"Resolved, That all patriotic women be urged to use their 
influence on fashions in dress to keep them as economical as 
possible, and to register their disapproval of such styles as the 
melon and peg-top skirt, or any other styles that imply ex- 
travagant changes in the wardrobe, to the end that the time and 
money thus saved from clothes may be devoted to the needs of 
the nation." 

How often have we heard: "When war comes, when our 
homes are threatened, when peril stalks abroad in the land, 
who shoulders the musket and goes out to fight? The man! 
The man!" 

But woman, knowing better than man the impulses of her 
own heart, only awaited the opportunity to show what she could 
do, though, much more than man, she loves peace, detests strife. 
But she did not await an actual call to arms to show the patri- 
otic spirit with which her soul was fired. Whatever her Gov- 
ernment was willing she should do, to that was she prepared to 
give her best efforts. 



232 WOMAN AND THE WAR. 

Lady Frances Balfour, president of the London' Society 
of National Union of Women Suffragists and president of the 
Travelers' Aid Society, worked as hard to win the war as any 
Tommy in the trenches. 

A daughter of the eighth Duke of Argyll and the widow 
of a soldier, she played an important part in Scotch and Eng- 
lish public life for many years, and has done much to advance 
the cause of British women. 

An authentic view of the situation as it developed with 
reference to the reception of women into the everyday work 
and what American women might do is contained in the follow- 
ing interview with Lady Balfour: 

WOMAN AS WAGE EARNER. 

"We are doing everything," she said. "We are filling 
nearly every post. If the House of Lords had not vetoed the 
bill we would be solicitors, but that must wait for a time. 
British women are now meeting with success because for the 
first time they are receiving a proper wage and are able to live 
in a way to do their best work. The old sweat shop wage has 
gone, and I hope never to return. Women will never return 
to the conditions which existed before the war. 

"American women start with a great advantage. They 
have already the entree in the business world and fill many 
clerical places, whereas our women and girls had to break down 
the barriers of conservatism existing in a great number of 
banks. There was the same objection to women workers among 
the farmers of the South of England, though in Scotland the 
woman has always done her part on the farm. 

"Girls are beginning on the farm at 18 shillings ($4.50) 
a week; before the war men farm hands worked for 11 shillings 
($2.75) . Our women are milking cows, running steam plows, 
digging in the fields and giving complete satisfaction. I dare 
not venture to predict what will happen in the future, but we 
can face it with confidence, I am certain. Now we are inspired 



WOMAN AND THE WAR. 233 

with the spirit of patriotism; we feel we owe our best to our 
country; we are ready to suffer hardship just as our brave men 
are doing in the trenches. 

BRITISH WOMEN'S PATRIOTISM. 

"The patriotism of British women had stood a hard test; 
I hope American women have an easier trial. Lloyd George 
says he hopes America will profit by the mistakes of Britain. 
For more than a year the government of this country snubbed 
and discouraged our women. The government does not pay 
women at the same rate as men ; it does not give them the same 
war bonus. There came a time when the government realized 
the war could not be won without the women. Then it issued 
frantic calls for help, and the women responded nobly, just as 
they would have done months before. I hope your American 
Government will recognize the value of woman's help from the 
very start. 

"Unfortunately I must judge your women largely by 
those who come over here for the season in peace days. As I 
remember they spent a great deal of time and money at the 
hairdressers, manicures, dressmaking establishments and hotels. 
But I am certain the great majority of Americans care more 
for their homes and country and less for display. I feel that 
they should concentrate on the production of food. We need 
all we can get and then we shall not have as much as we require. 
Money, food and ships are the things most needed. 

"Your women have been wonderfully generous in giving 
us money, supporting hospitals and sending us supplies. We 
can use some of your nurses and women doctors. We have a 
hospital here in London holding nearly 1000 soldiers and it is 
run entirely by women. Our Scottish women's hospitals have 
done grand work in the various theaters of war. Not only the 
nurses, but the doctors and ambulance drivers are women. We 
have supplied about 72,000 women for this work alone." 



234 WOMAN AND THE WAR. 

"How have women regarded the discipline of army life?" 
was asked. 

"Wonderfully!" said Lady Frances. "It has been good 
for them. Just see our women 'bus conductors. They work 
hard, handle all kinds of people, but I never heard them say 
they are unable to meet the emergencies which arise. And for 
the most part they are women who come from very humble 
surroundings. You hear that women have broken down in 
health under their work, but it seems to me I have read fre- 
quently about American business men suffering from nervous 
breakdowns and overwork." 

SUCCESS BUILT ON RUINS OF FAILURE. 

No great victories, either in war or in the ordinary relations 
of life, are attained without initial blunders. Many a splendid 
success is built upon the ruins of failure, and this is a fact that 
the women of Europe learned after the first hysteria occasioned 
by the marching soldiers, the beat of drums and all the excite- 
ment incident to real warfare. American women, when they 
joined hands with the Allies against Prussianism and all that it 
meant, builded splendid records of their usefulness upon the 
mistakes that these women made. 

In the summer of 1914 every girl and woman clamored to 
be a nurse. Women with a great deal of money and no experi- 
ence opened "hospitals" that were about as fit for the reception 
and treatment of wounded men as a henroost is capable of hous- 
ing an eagle. They all wanted to be in the "Red Cross" or "V. 
A. D." (Voluntary Aid Department) and wear caps and 
bandage wounds. 

Then there were the amateur nurses who didn't know much 
about nursing, "but would love to try." The daughter of a duke 
tried to go through a probationary course at St. Bartholo- 
mew's Hospital because she thought the uniform "perfectly 
sweet." But of course this element of "fluffiness" exists on 
the outside of any great movement. It has to be blown away 



WOMAN AND THE WAR. 235 

so that the hard surface of genuine and practical endeavor can 
be seen and felt. And that is what happened to England. The 
"fluff" disappeared and women knew where they were, and men 
realized that women possess a force, a firm and splendid resolve, 
that gives them the right to step beside men in the march toward 
victory. 

Another craze that amounted to a vice was the furious and 
ill-considered efforts of totally unskilled women to make shirts 
and hospital garments for soldiers. If some of the results had 
not been pathetic one could almost be overcome with the comi- 
cality of the whole business. Soldiers' shirts were turned out by 
a circle of busily sewing ladies that would not fit a dwarf, while 
probably the next batch of garments dispatched with patriotic 
fervor to a regimental depot might have been designed for a 

race of giants. 

NATIONAL SERVICE FOR WOMEN. 

National service for women as well as for men proved a 
very substantial portion of Great Britain's strength, but before 
national service had been generally thought of an organization 
called the Women's Service Bureau had been formed by a 
group of influential and intelligent women who were imbued 
with the idea that only by careful and systematized registration 
and selection could the matter of feminine war work be success- 
fully arranged. 

Lady Frances Balfour was the first president of the 
Women's Service Bureau, which with the London Society for 
Suffrage established 62 branches in the city of London and 
its suburbs. 

What the women at the head of this society realized was the 
necessity for giving the right women the most suitable employ- 
ment and also to give every applicant for work helpful and 
practical advice. The need for women's labor in the many 
trades and professions hitherto closed to them, and for their 
increased co-operation in those in which they already took part, 
has been forced home even to unwilling minds. 



236 WOMAN AND THE WAR. 

Here and there on the battlefields of Europe — in Bulgaria, 
Servia, Roumania, France, Belgium and Russia — have been 
noted occasionally the presence of a woman warrior, a modern 
Joan of Arc. It was not expected, however, that in America 
woman would do more than perform the service work which fell 
to the lot of the Red Cross nurses and the women practicing 
conservation and effecting organization in England. 

But the women of America were not satisfied with "petti- 
coat preparedness." They rushed to the khaki suits and to the 
colors with unexpected enthusiasm. One khaki-clad woman 
walked from San Francisco to New York, making recruiting 
speeches on the way. 

The infantry, the cavalry, the navy, the marines could 
all point to their girls in khaki. 

ALL KINDS OF 'WOMEN ENLISTED. 

As the women enlisted for all kinds of service, so it may 
be said all kinds of women enlisted — that is, women of all ranks 
of life — some from society, some from the mills, others from the 
offices, the shops, the stage, the restaurants and the colleges. 

Many years ago the country rang with the name of Tippe- 
canoe, and one of the men who bore arms on the western frontier 
was William Henry Harrison. The years went by and Ben- 
jamin Harrison came to the White House as President. 

The Harrison blood showed in the preparedness work, and 
Old Tippecanoe's great granddaughter helped to make the 
women of the country fit for the burden of war. 

There isn't anything on earth that shows so strongly in the 
blood as the soldier element, and Elizabeth Harrison, whose 
great ancestor faced the perils of the frontier warfare, was a 
leader by force of her inherited ability as a leader. She was 
elected drill sergeant for the college girls of the New York 
University. 

When the war clouds came she was following inherited 
bent. All of the Harrison men had been among the country's 



WOMAN AND THE WAR. 237 

greatest lawyers and Miss Harrison was studying for the bar. 

But just as the warwhoop of the West called Tippecanoe 
from his books and briefs to bullets and battles, so the daughter 
of the former President dropped Blackstone and Kent to take 
up the Drill Regulations and the elementary text books of the 
army. 

She knew that the way to make women fit for their part of 
war service was to make them strong and healthy and to give 
them an idea of the things that men-at-arms have to do. 

NOTED WOMEN IN THE WORK. 

So Miss Harrison was one of the first workers in the move- 
ment to teach women the elements of war. Many women of 
importance in the social and financial world took up the task 
with a will, and there was a girl for every signal flag, a maid for 
every wireless station, and an angel for every hospital ward in 
the making as the men pursued the task of providing guns and 
the men behind the guns. 

Miss Harrison and the girls she drilled at the University 
wore regulation field service uniform, khaki breeches, coat, 
heavy shoes and puttees, and a large hat of military cut. 

The American Woman's League for Self-Defence and 
Preparedness was the first woman's military organization in 
America, according to its president, Mrs. Ida Powell Priest, 
who is descended from an old Long Island family, Thomas 
Powell being one of her ancestors. 

The first cavalry troop, of which Ethel M. Scheiss was first 
senior captain, drilled regularly. Their first appearance 
mounted caused a mild sensation on Broadway. They were 
most impressively stern soldierettes as they trotted and galloped 
their horses. 

Everywhere the girl in America strove with helpful 
earnestness to do "her bit." Every strata of society called out 
its members in a wonderful plan of feminine preparedness. 
Besides the thousands of women members of the Red Cross 



238 WOMAN AND THE WAR. 

some of the most prominent organizations officered and planned 
by women include The National League for Women's Service, 
which has branches in every large city in the United States. 
They enrolled women as motor car drivers, telegraphers, wire- 
less operators, agriculturists and skilled mechanics. 

Miss Anne Morgan, as head of this organization, devoted 
an enormous amount of energy to the success of the work. 

OTHER SOCIETIES ORGANIZED. 

Other societies organized were the National Special Aid 
Society, Service of Any Kind, Militia of Mercy, which sends 
and provides bandages and other necessities and comforts for 
the soldiers; Girl Scouts of America, first aid, signalling and 
drills; Daughters of the American Revolution; the Suffrage 
Party and the Anti- Suffrage Society; the International Child 
Welfare League and the Girls' National Honor Guard. The 
Federation of Women's Clubs all over the United States also 
organized for any patriotic service that women could perform. 

A practical way of doing something to help France and 
Servia was offered early in the war by the splendid initiative 
of Dr. Elsie Inglis and the Scottish Federation of Women's 
Suffrage Societies, who organized hospitals for the wounded, 
the staffs of which were all women, and called on other societies 
for their support. 

The London society responded first by subscriptions from 
individual members, then by giving beds, then (in February, 
1915) by offering itself as London agent for the hospitals and 
undertaking all the practical work, in the sending out of per- 
sonnel and equipment, which had to be transacted in London. 

It is only by carefully systematized organization that great 
work of this kind can be carried on. The slapdash, haphazard 
of hysterical excitement can have no legitimate place in a move- 
ment that provides stepping stones toward the salvation of the 
civilized world. 

One of the things which will live long in the history of 



WOMAN AND THE WAR. 239 

womankind was the wonderful work done by the magnificently 
courageous units of Lady Paget's nursing force, which went 
out to Servia, when that country was laid waste not only by the 
German beasts, but also by disease. 

It was not the fault of those brave women and men that 
things happened at Uskub and in other Servian towns that do 
not bear repeating. 

It was just the lack of thorough preparedness for a war 
which was much worse than humanity had thought possible that 
deepened the tragedy of their situation. In Servia, in fact, the 
career of the hospitals was quite checkered and the service 
rendered proportionately more vital. 

LONDON-WALES UNIT. 

At the time of the Austro- German invasion in the autumn 
of 1915, the London- Wales Unit was at Valjevo, one of the 
five Scottish women's hospitals working in the country. It was 
under the command of Dr. Alice Hutchinson and was very 
highly organized. Doctor Inglis had herself gone on to Servia 
to take general charge of the hospitals there in the spring of 
1915. From the time that a typhus epidemic was overcome by 
women doctors early in the year to the time of the invasion all 
seemed to be going well. Then came three weeks of great pres- 
sure of work and of rapid moves from place to place as the 
enemy advanced into the country. Finally, it became a necessity 
for the personnel of the different units either to retreat with the 
Servian army over the mountains into Montenegro or to fall 
in the hands of the enemy. 

The story of the retreat is now very generally known. The 
journey was one long series of forced marches. Mountains 7000 
feet high had to be traversed in blinding snow, almost the whole 
journey had to be made on foot and it was six weeks before the 
little band reached the coast. Doctor Inglis meanwhile, with 
her group of nurses and orderlies, and Doctor Hutchinson, with 
the London-Wales Unit, had gallantly stayed behind and con- 



240 WOMAN AND THE WAR. 

tinued to attend to their Servian wounded and to organize help 
for them till the work was forcibly; stopped by; the advancing 
Austrian army. 

UNIT TAKEN PRISONERS. 

After being ordered out of Valjevo, Doctor Hutchinson 
made several attempts to organize hospitals in the line of 
retreat. She was at Vrnyachka Banja when the Austrians 
entered the town on November 10, 1915. She and her unit 
were taken prisoners and interned, first near the Servian fron- 
tier and then in Hungary for three weary months. The cheer- 
ful courage with which the members of the unit bore hardship 
and uncertainty and hope deferred has been related by Doctor 
Hutchinson in a memorable narrative. Their conditions would 
have been still more intolerable and their release would have 
been still longer delayed if Doctor Hutchinson herself had not 
known a great deal more about the Geneva Convention than 
the Austrian authorities had ever dreamed. She was thus able 
to assert herself on behalf of those under her in a way which 
taught her captors something new about British women. At 
the beginning of February the unit was at last allowed to cross 
the frontier into Switzerland. It reached England on Feb- 
ruary 12. It was only the perfection of its organization that 
carried this brave body of women through amazing hardships. 

Abroad women chauffeurs became almost as common in 
the war as men; the public in Paris and London refused to 
regard the appearance of a woman on the streets in cap, 
"knickers" and puttees or heavy boots as unusual, and in need 
they in many instances not only drove "taxi," but guided ambu- 
lances in the hospital service. 

The Red Cross in America, in the matter of preparedness, 
organized a class for women chauffeurs. One of these, started 
in Philadelphia, had among its instructors Mrs. Thomas Lang- 
don Elwyn and Miss Letitia McKim, both of whom drove 
ambulances for the Allies in England. 



WOMAN AND THE WAR. 241 

The National League for Woman Service, working in 
conjuction with the Council of National Defense, canvassed the 
country through its Bureau of Registration and Informa- 
tion to provide statistics for mobilizing the entire woman- force 
of the Nation ; all of which was done with the approval of the 
Secretary of Labor. 

Perhaps the outstanding incident of industrial employ- 
ment among women was that of several women in France as 
locomotive engineers. It is true that they operated only the 
shunting engines about the yards at the military camps, but 
it was noted in dispatches in every quarter of the globe that 
Mesdames Louis Debris and Marie Viard, whose husbands 
were killed in the war, were piloting the engines which their 
husbands had formerly driven. 

WOMAN'S INGENUITY. 

And woman has proved her ingenuity. In the damp 
trenches of the battlefields abroad the men need protection 
from the dampness and cold, which ordinary clothing will not 
provide. It was found that the leather-lined huntsmen's coats, 
and the sort of garments worn by the chauffeur, the aviator 
and the mountaineer served the men in the trenches well, and 
particularly along the Russian frontier and in the cold moun- 
tainous regions. 

But the price of leather soared, with the demand for mil- 
lions of pairs of shoes, saddles, harness, headgear, and what- 
not, and leather-lined coats were at a premium. The women 
were not to be denied, and through the Suffrage organizations 
which turned in to prepare America for the struggle and to 
render assistance to the Allies, the unique plan was adopted 
of making linings for the airmen and soldier's coats of old kid 
gloves. 

One group of women in a single section of Philadelphia 
gathered a thousand pairs of old gloves in a canvass. The 
seams were ripped and the gloves cut down one side and laid 

HR— 16 



242 WOMAN AND THE WAR 

open. The fingers of one glove so treated were dovetailed 
between the fingers of another glove so cut, and stitched 
together. Thus one glove was sewed to another until a section 
of leather was formed sufficient to make a lining for a coat. 
And many such were devised and incorporated in the garments 
sent to the front by the various agencies dominated by the 
women of the land. 

WOMEN AS POLICEMEN. 

While women to a limited degree were rendering service 
as "policemen" in certain sections of the United States and on 
Continental Europe the war was responsible for the develop- 
ment of an organized force in London, which will probably 
remain a permanent organization to the end of time. Miss 
Darner Dawson is chief of the London woman "bobbies," and 
M. S. Allen is chief superintendent. 

The force was organized in 1914, shortly after the out- 
break of the war and has relieved the men of a large amount 
of responsibility. The force is uniformed, the women wearing 
military costumes with visored caps. They operate under the 
supervision, or with the authority of Sir Edward Henry, Chief 
Commissioner of the Metropolitan police, and serve for duty 
at the munition plants where women workers are employed, 
besides doing regular patrol duty and welfare work. 

The service in London is in the nature of a training for 
special service and the women after sufficient experience are 
sent to suburbs and small towns to do police duty. They are 
highly spoken of and declared to be very efficient, rendering 
service in the barrooms and looking after women in a manner 
that the regular "bobbies" cannot approximate. 

It was declared in England, by way of closing the com- 
ment on this phase of the war that no one thing so stimulated 
the enlistments for service as the execution of Miss Edith 
Cavell, the English nurse who was shot as a spy by Germany. 



WOMAN AND THE WAR. 243 

That her name will go down in history as a martyr to the cause 
of liberty and humanity goes without saying. 

Miss Cavell had been a nurse in Brussels, and after the 
occupation of the Belgian capital by the Germans, she remained 
where she used her private hospital for the nursing of wounded 
soldiers; not excluding the Germans. It had been intimated 
that she had better cross the border, but she insisted on remain- 
ing at her post. Ultimately she was accused of being one of 
the instigators of a plot to smuggle English, French and 
Belgian soldiers across the lines, and of serving the enemies of 
Germany. 

To the German mind she was more than a spy; her con- 
duct was reprehensible, because in the capacity of nurse she 
had won a degree of confidence. She was therefore held as a 
spy and traitor. And though Brand Whitlock, America's 
Minister to Belgium, and other diplomats sought to save her, 
she was shot by the ruthless Germans. 



CHAPTER XIV 

THE TERRIBLE PRICE. 

A Nation of Men Destroyed — Millions in Shipping and Commerce Destroyed — 
World's Maps Changed — Billions in Money — Immense Debts — Nation's 
Wealth — The United States a Greai Provider. 

THE human tongue seems almost devoid of power to con- 
vey to the human mind what the war has actually cost 
the world in lives, money, property, ideals and all that 
is dear to humanity. In all the world there is not a human 
being who has not contributed something to the awful cost 
and the loss due to the destruction of property, the stopping 
of industry, the waste of energy and the curtailment of human 
endeavor in the interest of civilization, and the effects which 
the struggle has had upon the world cannot even be approxi- 
mated in dollars and cents. 

We have been taught to regard war as a terrible thing 
and to realize that thousands must be slain, but in no war in 
the history of the world has there been as many troops engaged 
as have been killed in the European war on the battlefields of 
Belgium and France. 

At the beginning of the year 1917 it was estimated that 
the total casualties of the war were 22,500,000. In a report 
based on figures compiled in Washington it was stated: The 
human estimated waste and financial outlay are staggering. 
The combined casualties of the war, partly estimated because 
all belligerents do not publish lists, are 22,500,000. The figures 
included killed, permanently injured, prisoners and wounded 
returned to the front. Of this number the Central Powers 
were estimated to have suffered permanent losses in excess of 
4,000,000, and the entente perhaps twice that number, Russia 
being by far the heaviest loser. 

The financial outlay, based in part on official reports and 

244 



THE TERRIBLE PEICE. 245 

statements and in part on estimates, was placed at approxi- 
mately $80,000,000,000, divided $50,000,000,000 to the entente 
and $30,000,000,000 to the Central Powers. The entente lost 
more than 3,500,000 tons of merchant shipping and approxi- 
mately 800,000 tons of naval vessels. On the other side the 
loss of naval tonnage was approximately 250,000 tons, and 
merchant ships aggregating 211,000 tons were reported cap- 
tured or destroyed. 

IMMENSE LOSS TO COMMERCE. 

Of the foreign commerce the Central Powers had lost 
$10,000,000,000 in the two and a half years of war, including 
imports and exports. The loss of commerce of Great Britain 
and her allies with the Central Powers probably was in the 
neighborhood of $7,000,000. This was largely made up al 
least on the import side by increased trade with the United 
States and other neutral countries and enlarged trade with the 
colonies. 

Germany lost virtually all her African colonies and all 
her possessions in the Pacific Ocean, an aggregate of more 
than 1,000,000 square miles. Turkey also lost a large area of 
territory held at the outbreak of the war, while Austria lost 
most of Bukowina and Galicia. To offset the territory losses 
of the Central Powers, the entente have lost in Europe approxi- 
mately 300,000 square miles. Of this large area, all of it 
thickly populated in normal times, 175,000 square miles were 
wrested from Russia on the eastern battlefield. 

The staggering losses in men include the vast number on 
both sides wounded in such a way as not to permanently cripple 
them and render them unfit for military service. The figures 
are based on official reports and estimates by military experts. 

Germany's permanent losses were placed at 1,500,000 
men, including about 1,000,000 in killed. The permanent 
losses of Austria-Hungary were placed at about 1,000,000 
more than those of Germany, owing to the fact that so much 



246 THE TERRIBLE PRICE. 

of the hard fighting on the eastern front was in the Austro- 
Hungarian theater. The losses of the Austro-Hungarians 
during the drive of General Brusiloff in 1916 were frightful. 
Large numbers of Austrians were taken prisoner by Brusiloff . 

Russia's casualties for the first year of the war were esti- 
mated by military experts at more than 3,500,000 men, and 
these were doubled in the succeeding year, according to esti- 
mates by American military experts. Russia returned to the 
fighting line a smaller percentage of wounded than any of the 
other great Powers. 

GREAT BRITAIN'S CASUALTIES. 

Great Britain's casualties were placed in excess of 1,250,- 
000 despite the limited front of British operations in France 
in the early stages. The aggregate of Italy's casualties was 
estimated at 1,500,000, while Belgium's were placed at 200,000, 
Servia's at 400,000, Montenegro's at 150,000 and Rumania's 
at more than 300,000. 

While the area of the territorial losses of the Central 
Powers was nearly four times as great as that of the entente 
group, with the exception of the occupied portions of Buko- 
wina and Galicia, the value of the territory included in them 
is comparatively small. For example, Germany's African 
colonies were sparsely settled, largely by natives, with virtually 
all development in the future. Despite this fact, their loss 
was a severe blow to Germany. 

The territorial losses of the entente covered all but a small 
corner of Belgium, a highly developed, thickly populated 
industrial country; a large slice of northern France, virtually 
all of Servia, all of Montenegro, more than three-fourths of 
Rumania and 175,000 square miles of Russia, the major part 
of it in the grain-growing section. 

According to military experts on the "war map" of 
Europe as it stood at that time, the Central Powers had won the 
war. But when their enormous loss of foreign commerce and 



THE TERRIBLE PRICE. 247 

territory is considered, their "victory" was shown to have most 
decided limitations, especially because of their admission that 
they eventually would have to give up all occupied territory in 
view of the frightful cost in men and money. 

FIGURES POSITIVELY STAGGERING. 

Supplementing these statements, as showing the progress 
of the war, it was stated just before the Ukiited States took 
its memorable step to break off diplomatic relations with 
Germany, members of the National War Council estimated the 
total casualties of the war at that time as in excess of the 
population of the United Kingdom, which in 1911 was more 
than 45,000,000. This of course included those maimed, 
injured or so stricken that they were unfit for future service. 
The number actually killed was estimated at more than 
7,000,000. 

Staggering as these figures are they are easily conceivable 
when it is remembered that the German front lines covered 
more than 500 miles with Allied troops opposing them, and 
that in a single battle millions of shells were fired by one side 
or the other. In one battle it was officially reported that 
4,000,000 shot and shell were used, and in another the English 
mined the German trenches for a distance of several miles and 
blew out the strongholds, using more than 1,000,000 pounds 
of high explosives. 

One of the great 42-centimeter guns of the Germans is 
said to have used a charge of guncotton involving the use of 
a full bale of cotton to make the' explosive — and a bale of 
cotton contains 500 pounds. The shrapnel of the heavy field 
artillery of the United States contains 717 balls or bullets about 
the size of a common marble, and the shell, so timed that it 
explodes just before it touches the ground, scatters the bullets 
or balls over an area estimated at one yard for every bullet, or 
more than 700 yards. With thousands of such shells being 



248 THE TERRIBLE PRICE. 

rained over the entrenchments is it any wonder that the list of 
wounded and killed was great? 

Thousands were killed by poisoned gases, and where they 
were not killed a very large percentage of those affected 
suffered consequences which rendered them unfit for battle — 
turned them into invalids. The gas bombs produced hemor- 
rhages of the lungs and bowels in thousands of cases and left 
those who inhaled the fumes in an anemic and permanently 
disabled condition. And what of the thousands who suc- 
cumbed to fevers, and who because of the terrible shock became 
mental and physical wrecks and were made unfit for further 
duty on the actual firing lines? 

A MATTER OF DOLLARS AND CENTS. 

When it comes to the cost in dollars and cents it is possible 
to tell something of what they mean with reference to war 
construction and maintenance, although no one can estimate 
what it represents in destruction. No one has yet devised $n 
accounting system to determine the percentage of "deprecia- 
tion" through wear and tear on guns and devices that cost 
thousands of dollars each, but everybody knows that guns wear 
out and that some of the larger ones have a very decided limit 
on the number of times they can be fired without being rebored 
or rifled. 

Railroads which have taken years to build and develop 
have been destroyed, telephone and telegraph lines put out of 
commission, great castles and temples razed, works of art 
burned, whole cities devastated, green fields turned into great 
craters torn up by bombs and shells, factories dismantled, herds 
of cattle fed into the maw of the armies, and the ruthless 
Germans even went so far as to wantonly cut down and destroy 
whole forests and magnificent shade trees which it took genera- 
tions to grow. 

How the indebtedness of the nations grew during the 
progress of the war is shown in the following statement issued 



THE TERRIBLE PRICE. 249 

by some of the financial institutions of the country in the 
Spring of 1917: 

"Indebtedness of the seven principal nations engaged in 
the European war has crossed $75,000,000,000. In the middle 
of 1914 the indebtedness of these seven nations was $27,000,- 
000,000." 

Financing on an extensive scale followed this state of 
affairs. France issued a second formal war loan, Germany a 
fifth loan and Russia a sixth loan. Great Britain issued tem- 
porary securities in enormous sums. 

The war cost $105,000,000 every twenty-four hours, ac- 
cording to the statistics, expenditures of the Entente Allies 
being fully double those of the Central Allies. 

COMPARATIVE WAR EXPENSES. 

Without for one moment taking into consideration the 
billions which were thrown into the war-pot by America the 
figures are staggering. An interesting comparison is found 
in the cost of the previous great world wars. The American 
Civil War, the greatest conflict in prior history cost $8,000,- 
000,000, a sum equalled every three months in the conduct of 

the European war. 

Approximate cost. 

Napoleonic Wars, 1793-1815 $6,250,000,000 

American Civil War, 1861-1864 8,000,000,000 

Franco-Prussian War, 1870-1871 3,000,000,000 

South African War, 1900-1902 1,250,000,000 

Russo-Japanese War, 1904-1905 2,500,000,000 

European War, 1914-1917 (3 years) 75,000,000,000 

It was further estimated that after the year 1917, the 
payment of $3,800,000,000 a year would be required to pay the 
interest on the debt, and that the total Government expendi- 
tures in Europe for bond interest and support of the various 
branches of the Governments would require in the neighbor- 
hood of 20 per cent of the people's income. 



250 THE TERRIBLE PRICE. 

POPULATION AND WEALTH OF COUNTRIES. 
Another comparative table that is important to any one 
desiring to study the costs and their effects is that relating to 
population and wealth of the principal countries. The latest 
available figures are: 

Population Wealth 

United States 101,577,000 $187,739,071,090 

British Empire 394,930,000 130,000,000,000 

Germany 67,810,000 80,000,000,000 

France 39,700,000 50,000,000,000 

Russia 187,379,000 40,000,000,000 

Austria-Hungary 53,000,000 25,000,000,000 

Spain 20,000,000 5,400,000,000 

Belgium 7,500,000 9,000,000,000 

Portugal 5,958,000 2,500,000,000 

Italy 37,048,000 2,0,000,000,000 

Taxes have been the main sources for raising money to 
carry on the war. In Germany taxes on all incomes from the 
Kaiser to the ordinary business man were kept at the highest 
rate, the Kaiser paying $500,000 on his fortune of $35,000,000 
during the early part of the struggle. This was in addition 
to his income tax which amounted to $440,000, making a total 
annual tax of nearly $1,000,000. The Krupps are said to have 
been assessed at $3,000,000. 

When the new military service laws were approved in 
Paris, which was about the middle of July, 1913, the French 
Cabinet was at its wit's end to provide the financial end of the 
tremendous military budget. Investment markets were slug- 
gish, and there were thousands of notes whose values were 
rapidly depreciating. The French Government was unable 
to float a loan of $200,000,000 which was necessary for making 
preparations. 

Then in her desperation Paris closed her doors to all 



THE TERRIBLE PRICE. 251 

foreign loans. The Viviani Ministry practically duplicated 
the plan of its predecessor in proposing an issue of $360,000,000 
3-J/2 P er cen t bonds, which were redeemable in 25 years. 

One year previously to this financial struggle the Belgian 
Government had started to raise $62,800,000 in order that the 
people of this country might prevent its being used as the 
battleground for the world war which they had seen away off 
in the future. This money was raised for the purpose of mak- 
ing Antwerp an impregnable fortress. 

IMMENSE SUM FOR ARMY AND NAVY. 

Russia had taken steps to raise $3,700,000,000 which the 
Russian Minister of Finance had informed the Budget Com- 
mittee must be spent in the next five years on the army and 
navy. During the first year of the war there was $500,000,000 
spent by this country in military and naval defence. This does 
not include the cost of those strategic railroads of which so 
many were constructed by the Russian Government, and 
which cost so many hundreds of thousands of dollars. 

Previous to the time Great Britain declared war on Ger- 
many the House of Commons had voted $525,000,000 for 
emergency purposes, and within a couple of days of this appro- 
priation an additional $500,000,000 was granted by the British 
Parliament. 

One of the things accomplished by war was to bring out 
the fact that the resources of individuals are far greater than 
is ordinarily suspected. In 1870 Bismarck imposed an indem- 
nity of $1,000,000,000 on France, never believing that country 
could meet the great debt, but with the help of all the inhabi- 
tants the debt was lifted within a few months. 

When countries are at war the cost of continuing fighting 
does not stop with those actually engaged. The trade of the 
world is affected, and this means loss in all quarters of the 
globe. Of the import trade of the United States more than 
$500,000,000 was directly with those nations engaged in the 



252 THE TERRIBLE PRICE. 

war at the opening of hostilities. This was out of a total of 
$1,850,000,000. A great part of this commerce is classed as 
among that which yields the greatest import tax, which means 
that internal taxes must be imposed on the people to make up 
for the money necessary to meet with the yearly loss occasioned 
during the continuance of the war. 

ANNUAL NATIONAL INCOME. 

In the United States there is an annual national income 
of $50,000,000,000, the total bank resources being $35,000,- 
000,000, the individual deposits being $24,000,000,000, with 
cash held by the banks totaling $2,500,000,000, total gold stock 
in the country being $3,000,000,000, and available additional 
commercial credits on the basis of cash holdings totaling 
$6,000,000,000. 

The borrowing power of the American Government does 
not total less than $40,000,000,000, from domestic sources, and 
this does not disturb the ordinary financial and economical 
affairs of the nation. 

During the first five months in 1917 the Government of 
the United States reached a record for expenditures never 
before equalled in American history. The total amount 
expended was $1,600,000,000. 

The chief item of the increase — $607,500,000 — was the 
purchase of the obligations of foreign Governments in exchange 
for loans advanced to the Allies. The sum did not represent by 
approximately $140,000,000 the total amount authorized in 
loans. An increase of approximately $245,000,000 in the 
ordinary disbursements of the Government, chiefly due to 
military and naval needs, also was recorded and another item 
going to swell the grand total of expenditures was the payment 
of $25,000,000 for purchase of the Danish West Indies. 

War loans of the six chief European belligerents, early in 
1917, aggregated approximately $53,113,000,000. 

Loans of the chief Entente nations, Great Britain, France, 



THE TERRIBLE PRICE. 253 

Russia and Italy, were placed at about $36,300,000,000; those 
of Germany and Austria-Hungary, not including the sixth 
German loan reported to have yielded about $3,000,000,000, at 
$18,800,000,000. 

The amounts of the various loans were placed at: 
Great Britain, to March 31, 1917, $18,805,000,000; 
France, to February 28, $10,500,000,000 ; Russia, to December 
31, 1916, $7,896,000,000; Italy/to December 31, 1916, $2,520,- 
000,000; Germany, to December, 31, 1916, $11,226,000,000; 
Austria, to December 31, 1916, $5,880,000,000; Himgary, 
$1,730,000,000. 

The total included the advances made by the United King- 
dom and France to the smaller belligerent countries allied with 
them. 

SOME IDEA OF NATIONAL FINANCING. 

Some idea of what all this financing means to a country 
may be judged by the statement of the Chancellor of the 
Exchequer, who in October, 1916, replying to questions 
regarding the English loans in the House of Commons, 
declared that England was paying at that time about $10,000,- 
000 a day in the United States, for every working day in the 
year. 

When the English mission visited the United States in 
May, 1917, after the country had entered the war, there was 
handed to Arthur James Balfour, ex-Premier of England, a 
check for $200,000,000, said to have been one of the largest 
single checks ever paid in this country. It was a loan for war 
purposes. In the month of June it was stated that the total 
advance made to the Allies was $923,000,000, among the loans 
made then was one of $75,000,000 to Great Britain, and $3,000,- 
000 to Servia. The Servian loan, the first made by the United 
States to that country, was mainly for the improvement of rail- 
way lines. A small portion was used for the relief of the 
distressed population, and Red Cross work. 



254 THE TERRIBLE PRICE. 

It was stated that the allied countries would spend in 
America, in the neighborhood of $200,000,000 a month for 
the year; which brings attention to the resources which America 
turned in against Germany when she joined the allied forces. 
To meet the demands made upon it the Government borrowed 
at once $3,000,000,000 by popular subscription — a matter of 
history of which the nation is proud. 

From its funds the country loaned Russia $100,000,000, 
which was the first loan made by the United States to that 
Government. A credit of $45,000,000 to Belgium was also 
established by the Secretary of the Treasury. This also was 
Belgium's first participation in the loan of the Allies. 

COUNTRY'S NATURAL RESOURCES. 

Aside from the financial resources of the United States, 
the country is undoubtedly the richest in agricultural, mineral 
and other natural resources. It annually produces more than 
3,500,000,000 bushels of corn, wheat touching the high point of 
1,500,000,000 bushels; 1,600,000,000 bushels of oats; 250,000,- 
000 bushels of barley; 40,000,000 bushels of rye; 22,000,000 
btehels of buckwheat; 425,000,000 bushels of potatoes; 77,000,- 
000 tons of hay; 30,000,000 bushels of flaxseed; 7,000,000,000 
pounds of cotton ; more than 1,000,000,000 pounds of tobacco ; 
2,000,000 long tons of sugar and 275,000,000 pounds of wool. 

There are nearly 70,000,000 swine, and as many cattle, 
more than 25,000,000 head of horses and mules, and 62,000,000 
sheep. Coal is mined at the rate of more than 500,000,000 tons 
yearly, and the copper mines yield 1,250,000,000 pounds of 
metal. Petroleum wells yield 225,500,000 barrels yearly. 
There are 270,000 manufacturing plants with a yearly output 
of more than $25,000,000,000. The products of the farm total 
more than $11,000,000,000 annually. 

As to Germany's position, economists all over the world 
have considered her position as not only lacking soundness, 
but as crazy — crazy in that no attention whatever has appar- 



THE TERRIBLE PRICE. 255 

ently been paid to what are recognized as firmly fixed economic 
laws. The world has been at a loss to understand Germany's 
attitude, and it can only be explained by assuming that Ger- 
many was perfectly well aware of the entire unsoundness of 
her commercial and financial position, and was willing, or, in 
fact, had to risk everything with the hope of acquiring sufficient 
indemnity, resulting from the war, to bring her financial affairs 
to a sound basis. Germany's entire structure from the close of 
the Franco-Prussian war evidently was built upon rotten 
foundations. 



CHAPTER XV 

THE WORLD RULERS AT WAR. 

Woodeow Wilson, the Champion of Democracy — The Egotistical Kaiseb— 
The German Cbown Peince — Britain's Monarch — Constantine Who Quit 
Eathee than Fight Germany — President Poincaire — And Other National 
Heads. 

NO matter what the human frailties may be there are al- 
ways men who rise in the stress of circumstances to unex- 
pected heights. They thrive upon difficulties and in the 
emergencies become protectors and saviors of men. In the 
world's greatest melting-pot — the burned and blood-stained 
battle-fields of Europe — there were tried and tested millions 
of men of all nationalities and characteristics, and though the 
experience was one of bitterness, there was found in it the 
satisfaction that in their own way millions of men proved 
themselves great. 

Out of the hordes that rode over mountains, sailed the 
seas or picked their way through trenches and across the 
scarred surface of the earth there looms the figures of some 
whose names will go down in history for all time. Their names 
will be written indelibly upon the pages of life and they will be 
known for ages after the evidences of the great strife have 
been obliterated and the peace for which the world struggled 
has been made a permanent thing. 

Among those whose names will be forever linked with the 
terrible war as a leader of men — whose figure stands out 
against the mass of humanity — is Woodrow Wilson, Presi- 
dent of the United States of America. Though he neither 
faced bullets nor tramped the historic byways of Europe in 
the terrible struggle, he was to all intents and purposes the 
commander-in-chief of all the world forces seeking to break 
the autocratic domination of the Hohenzollerns of Germany 

256 



THE WORLD RULERS AT WAR. 257 

and give democracy its place among the nations of the world 
which its character justifies. 

President Wilson, when he was elevated to the highest 
position in America which the Nation could bestow, was 
recognized as one of the greatest essayists and students of 
history, political economy, constitutional law and government 
in the country. And those who made light of his "book- 
learning" and referred to him as "the school-master president," 
came to know that his training and the very character of his 
life's work fitted him better than probably any other man in 
America to deal with the great national and international 
problems which confronted, which culminated with or grew 
out of America's entrance into the great war. 

WILSON'S MANY HONORS. 

He was born in Staunton, Va., in 1856, the son of Rev. 
Joseph Woodrow Wilson, and received his early education at 
Davidson College, jNT. C. Subsequently he received a degree 
at Princeton University and graduated in law at the Univer- 
sity of Virginia, later practicing law at Atlanta. After this 
he received degrees at Johns Hopkins, Rutgers, University of 
Pennsylvania, Brown, Dartmouth, Harvard and Yale Col- 
leges, and was professor of history and political economy, first 
at Bryn Mawr College and later at Wesleyan University, and 
finally professor of jurisprudence and political economy, then 
jurisprudence and politics and afterward president at Prince- 
ton University, from which post he was elected Governor of 
the State of New Jersey in 1913. He resigned from the 
Governorship and was elected President of the United States 
for a term beginning March, 1913, and was re-elected in 
November, 1916, for a second term beginning March, 1917, 
both times on the Democratic ticket. 

As against the figure of President Wilson there stands 
that of the Emperor William of Germany, whose policies indi- 
rectly precipitated the war and impelled the alignment of 

HR 17 



258 THE WORLD RULERS AT WAR. 

nations to defend themselves against his autocratic domination. 
For years the head of the House of Hohenzollern, descendant 
of the ancient margraves of Germany who have battled with 
the old Romans, made it manifest in speech and by action that 
his ambition was to create a world empire. 

GERMANY MUST BE RECKONED WITH. 

Once at the launching of one of the great German war- 
ships he said: "The ocean teaches us that on its waves and 
on its most distant shores no great decision can any longer be 
taken without Germany and without the German Emperor. 
I do not think that it was in order to allow themselves to be 
excluded from big foreign affairs that, thirty years ago, our 
people, led by their princes, conquered and shed their blood. 
Were the German people to let themselves be treated thus, it 
would be, and forever, the end of their world-power; and I do 
not mean that that shall ever cease. To employ, in order to 
prevent it, the suitable means, if need be extreme means, is my 
duty and my highest privilege." 

In a famous interview in the London "Daily Mail" in 
1908, discussing the attitude of Germany toward England, the 
Kaiser was quoted as follows : 

"You English," he said, "are mad, mad, mad as March 
hares. What has come over you that you are so completely 
given over to suspicions quite unworthy of a great nation? 
What more can I do than I have done? I declared with all 
the emphasis at my command, in my speech at Guildhall, that 
my heart is set upon peace, and that it is one of my dearest 
wishes to live on the best of terms with England. Have I ever 
been false to my word? Falsehood and prevarication are alien 
to my nature. My actions ought to speak for themselves, but 
you listen not to them but to those who misinterpret and dis- 
tort them. That is a personal insult which I feel and resent. 
To be forever misjudged, to have my repeated offers of 
friendship weighed and scrutinized with jealous, mistrustful 



THE WORLD RULERS AT WAR. 259 

eyes, taxes my patience severely. I have said time after time 
that I am a friend of England, and your Press — or at least a 
considerable section of it — bids the people of England refuse 
my proffered hand, and insinuates that the other holds a 
dagger. How can I convince a nation against its will?" 

And then as if to impress upon the world the belief that 
he was chosen of God, the Kaiser repeatedly gave voice to such 
bombastic utterances as when to his son in Brandenburg, he 
declared: "I look upon the people and nation handed on to 
me as a responsibility conferred upon me by God, and that it 
is, as is written in the Bible, my duty to increase this heritage, 
for which one day I shall be called upon to give an account; 
those who try to interfere with my task I shall crush." 

THE " GOD-APPOINTED " HOHENZOLLERNS. 

Again he expressed the same sentiment when he said: 
"It is a tradition of our House, that we, the Hohenzollerns, 
regard ourselves as appointed by God to govern and to lead 
the people, whom it is given us to rule, for their well-being 
and the advancement of their material and intellectual 
interests." 

And finally in his address to the people in August, 1914, 
he said at the beginning of war: "A fateful hour has fallen 
for Germany. Envious peoples everywhere are compelling 
us to our just defence. The sword has been forced into our 
hands. I hope that if my efforts at the last hour do not suc- 
ceed in bringing our opponents to see eye to eye with us and 
in maintaining the peace, we shall, with God's help, so wield 
the sword that we shall restore it to its sheath again with 
honor. 

"War would demand of us an enormous sacrifice in prop- 
erty and life, but we should show our enemies what it means 
to provoke Germany. And now I commend you to God. Go 
to church and kneel before God, and pray for His help for 
our gallant army." 



260 THE WORLD RULERS AT WAR. 

This is the picture of "Kaiser Bill" whose egotism gave 
expression to itself in 1910 when in a speech he said: "Con- 
sidering myself as the instrument of the Lord, without heed- 
ing the views and opinions of the day, I go my way." 

EMPEROR WILLIAM'S CHILDREN. 

William II, Emperor of Germany and King of Prussia, 
was born January 27, 1859, succeeding his father, Emperor 
Frederick the III, in June, 1888. He married the Princess 
Augusta Victoria, of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augus- 
tenburg, and had the following issue: Frederick William, 
Crown Prince, born May 6, 1882; William Eitel-Frederick, 
born 1883; Adalbert, born 1884; August, born 1887; Oscar, 
born 1888; Joachim, born 1890, and Victoria Louise, born 
1892. 

Crown Prince Frederick William is one of the remark- 
able figures of the war. A profound admirer of Napoleon he 
has always made a close study of that great French soldier, 
and has long been one of the leaders of the war-seeking element 
in Germany. The Crown Prince, who was born in 1882, is 
tall, slim and impulsive. The late Queen Victoria, his great 
grandmother, was his godmother. 

After he had completed a military course he attended 
Bonn University, and on the completion of his college course 
he set out on extensive travels. After his return he was placed 
in the offices of the Potsdam provincial government so that 
he might study local administration. After completing this 
study he was given a course in the intricate routine through 
which two-thirds of the German people are governed, by being 
placed in the Prussian Ministry of the Interior. Naval 
administration has also been a part of the studies of the Crown 
Prince, in fact he was deeply engrossed in that study when 
the war was declared. 

The Crown Prince married Duchess Cecilie of Mecklen- 
burg-Schwerin, in 1905. 



THE WORLD RULERS AT WAR. 261 

King George V, of Great Britain, the only surviving son 
of the late King Edward, was born in 1865. He was the 
second son of the king, his brother Prince Albert, the heir to 
the throne, dying suddenly in 1892 and bringing the second 
son, who had been destined for the navy, into direct succession. 
In 1893 Princess Mary of Teck, who was to have married 
Prince Albert, was married to Prince George, and there is 
one daughter, Princess Mary, and five sons — Edward, Prince 
of Wales, and Princes Albert, Henry, George and John. 
THE DUKE OF CONNAUGHT. 

Prince Arthur, the Duke of Connaught, who is now 
Governor General of Canada, is an uncle of the King. He 
was married to Princess Louise-Margaret of Prussia, the 
daughter of Prince Frederick-Charles of Prussia and Princess 
Marie- Anne of Anhalt. He has three children; Margaret, 
the oldest, is the Crown Princess of Sweden; Prince Arthur 
is married to his cousin, Princess Alexandra, Duchess of Fife, 
and Princess Victoria-Patricia, who is unmarried. 

King Edward had three brothers and five sisters, two 
brothers falling heir in turn to the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg- 
Gotha. 

King George V is uncle by blood to Olaf , Crown Prince 
of Norway, and by marriage with Queen Mary, to three 
Princes and three Princesses of Teck. He is brother-in-law to 
King Haakon VII of Norway and Prince of Denmark, Duke 
Adolph of Teck, and Prince Alexander of Teck. He is a first 
cousin on his father's side to Emperor William II of Ger- 
many, and his brothers and sisters, among whom, principally, 
is the Queen of Greece; to Ernst-Louis, Grand Duke of 
Hesse, and his four sisters, one of whom is the wife of Prince 
Henry of Prussia, and another is Alice, former Czarina of 
Russia. The first and second cousins of the King run well up 
into the hundreds. 

The Royal Family of Belgium was founded when, in 



262 THE WORLD RULERS AT WAS, 

1831, the people elected King Leopold I to rule the destinies 
of that country. The king was married to Princess Louise 
of Orleans, after which practically all the marriages of the 
family were with the southern group of royal houses. 

There were three children born to the couple, the oldest 
son succeeding to the throne as King Leopold II. The latter 
married Archduchess Marie Henriette of Austria. One son, 
and three daughters were born, the son dying when he was 23 
years old. The oldest of the daughters became the wife of 
Prince Philip of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, the second wedding 
Crown Prince Rudolph of Austria-Hungary, who died in 
youth, and the third becoming the wife of Prince Napoleon 
Bonaparte. The daughter of Leopold I is the widow of the 
ill-fated Emperor Maximilian of Mexico, who was executed 

there in 1867. 

SECOND SON OF LEOPOLD I. 

The second son of Leopold I was Philip, the Count of 
Flanders, who was married to Princess Marie of Hohen- 
zollern, sister of the Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern and 
King Charles of Koumania. The son to this marriage is King 
Albert of Belgium, who succeeded his uncle, Leopold II, in 
1909. The Queen of Belgium is Princess Elizabeth of the 
Ducal House of Bavaria. Through her King Albert is allied 
to the Crown Prince of Bavaria, the Grand Duchess of Lux- 
emburg, the Duke of Parma, the late Franz Ferdinand of Aus- 
tria, and the present heir-apparent, Archduke Charles Francis 
Joseph. The King and Queen have two sons, Leopold, born in 
1902, and Charles Theodore, who is two years younger. There 
is also a daughter, the Princess Marie- Josephine, born in 1906. 

King Nicholas I, ruler of the picturesque little country 
of Montenegro, which was the scene of much bitter fighting, 
was born October 7, 1841, and proclaimed Prince of Monte- 
negro, as successor to his uncle Danilo I, in 1860. He became 
king in 1910. Nicholas I married Milena Petrovna Vucotic. 



THE WORLD RULERS AT WAR. 263 

The children are Princess Militza, who married the Russian 
Grand Duke Peter Nikolaievitch; Princess Stana, who mar- 
ried George, Duke of Leuchtenberg, but which marriage was 
dissolved, the Princess subsequently marrying the Russian 
Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaievitch. The other children are 
Prince Danilo Alexander, heir-apparent; Princess Helena, 
who married Victor Emmanuel, King of Italy ; Princess Anna, 
who married Prince Francis Joseph of Battenberg; Prince 
Mirko, who married Natalie Constantinovitch ; Princess Zenia, 
Princess Vera and finally Prince Peter, who was born in 1889. 

KING OF SERVIA. 

Peter I, King of Servia, one of the figures of the war, is 
the son of Alexander Kara-Georgevitch. He was born in 
Belgrade in 1844, and was proclaimed King after the murder 
of King Alexander and Queen Draga. He ascended the 
throne on June 2, 1903. He was married in 1883 to Princess 
Zorka, of Montenegro, who died in 1890. He has two sons 
and a daughter; George, who was born in 1887, and who 
renounced his right to the throne in 1909 ; Alexander, born in 
1889, and Helen, who was born in 1884. Because of his ill 
health King Peter, for a long time, delegated authority to his 
son Alexander for the purpose of government. 

Nicholas II, the last Czar of Russia, who abdicated in 
June, 1917, was born May 18, 1868, and succeeded his father, 
Emperor Alexander III, on November 1, 1894. He married 
Princess Alexandra Alice, daughter of Ludwig IV, Grand 
Duke of Hesse, and has four daughters and one son: Olga, 
Tatinia, Marie, Anastasia and Alexis. 

The family is descended in the female line from Michael 
Romanof, first elected Czar in 1613, and, in the male line, 
from Duke Karl Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp. As the 
result of intermarriages and connections with the royal houses 
of Germany, they are practically Germans by blood. 



264 THE WOULD KULEES AT WAR. 

It was in fact the German influence, which is said to have 
been the immediate cause of the revolt in the great country. 

The revolution may be said to have had its inception 
when a small group of men opposed to the German influence 
at court assassinated the monk Gregory Rasputin, who had a 
great influence over the Czar. 

A REACTIONARY CABINET INSTALLED. 

Czar Nicholas in anger dismissed Premier Trepoff and 
installed a thoroughly reactionary Cabinet. Trepoff had been 
in office only a short time, having followed M. Sturmer, who 
had bitterly fought the Duma. It had been commonly 
reported that the real power in the Russian Government after 
Sturmer went out was in the hands of the Minister of the 
Interior, M. Protopopoff. Sturmer had been called to the 
premiership to succeed M. Gorcmykin, who was in office when 
the war began. 

The fact that Michael Rodzianko, president of the Duma 
and one of the leading advocates of liberalization of the 
Government, was named as the chief figure in the provisional 
government, showed that the movement is in the hands of the 
same forces which had demanded the overthrow of the bureau- 
cracy and a more energetic prosecution of the war. 

There were many changes in the Russian Government 
during the war, although the censorship was enforced so 
rigidly that the significance of the rapid shifts was apparent. 
Vague reports reached the outside world of high councilors of 
State who were obstructing instead of assisting the work of 
carrying on the war, and the strength of German influence at 
Petrograd. The most conspicuous case of this sort was that 
of General Soukhomlinoff, former Minister of War, who was 
dismissed from office and imprisoned as a result of charges of 
criminal negligence and high treason. 

M. Sazonoff, Russia's Foreign Minister at the beginning 
of the war and an ardent believer in the prosecution of the 



THE WORLD RULERS AT WAR. 265 

war, was deposed early in the reactionary regime and sent as 
envoy to London. It was suggested that the motive for this 
was not to honor an anti-German, but to get him out of 
Russia. 

MEMBERS OF THE RUSSIAN CABINET. 

The members of the Russian Cabinet, as announced for 
the Provisional Government, were : 

Prince Georges E. Lvoff, well known as president of the 
Zemstvos' Union, Prime Minister. 

Alexander J. GuchkofT, Minister of the Interior. 

Paul Milukoff, well known as a Constitutional Democrat 
leader, Minister of Foreign Affairs. 

M. Pokrovski, Minister of Finance. 

General Manikovski, chief of the Artillery Department, 
War Minister. 

M. Savitch, Minister of Marine. 

M. Maklakoff, Minister of Justice. 

M. Kovalevski, Minister of Education. 

M. Nekrasoff, Minister of Railways. 

M. Konovaloff, Moscow merchant, Minister of Com- 
merce and Industry. 

M. Rodischneff, Secretary for Finland. 

M. Kerenski, Minister without portfolio. 

The executive committee of the Imperial Duma, as the 
provisional Government styles itself, is composed of twelve 
members, under M. Rodzianko, including two Socialists, two 
Conservatives, three Moderates, five Constitutional Demo- 
crats and Progressives. 

Constantine I, King of Greece, who abdicated in favor 
of his son, Prince Alexander, on June 11, 1917, under pressure 
from the Allied countries, was born in 1868. His father, King 
George, was assassinated at Salonica on March 18, 1913. The 
abdication of King Constantine in June, 1917, was due to his 
opposition to the forces in the government which desired to 



266 THE WORLD RULERS AT WAR. 

join the Allies in the war against Germany. The influence 
in favor of the Germans in the royal family of Greece was 
Queen Sophia, a sister of the Kaiser. 

For a time Constantine was a veritable idol in Greece. 
In 1896 when his country was drifting into war with Turkey, 
he sounded a warning that the Greek army was unprepared 
for a campaign. The infantry was armed with condemned 
French rifles; the cartridges were 15 years old; there was no 
cavalry ; the artillery was obsolete, and the officers few. When 
the country went to war despite his warning, the result was a 
disastrous defeat. A similar situation developed when King 
George tried to oppose the popular clamor for the annexation 
of Crete. The King knew that Turkey was waiting for another 
opportunity to crush Greece, and there was a second uprising. 

CONSTANTINE BECOMES AN IDOL. 

Constantine had been in command of the military forces, 
and King George was obliged to dismiss him as Generalissimo. 
In the Balkan war of 1912, however, when he led an army of 
10,000 Greeks to the capture of Salonica, causing 30,000 
Turks to lay down arms, he became an idol. On ascending 
the throne, it was said that he aimed to restore the grandeur 
of the ancient Hellenic Empire, and that he was a firm be- 
liever in the old national prophecy that, under the reign of a 
"Constantine and a Sophia," the Eastern Empire would be 
rejuvenated and the cross restored on Saint Sophia in Con- 
stantinople, supplanting the Crescent of the Turk. In fact, 
after the Balkan war, when Greece added a section of Turkish 
territory to her domain, and the islands of Crete were annexed, 
King Constantine hoisted the ancient Hellenic flag over the 
fort. 

The climax in Grecian affairs was precipitated when Tur- 
key entered the great World War on the side of Germany. 
The question of intervention on the part of Greece arose, and 
King Constantine insisted on strict neutrality being observed. 



THE WORLD RULERS AT WAR. 267 

The cabinet, headed by Premier Venizelos, which was for war 
on the side of the Allies, tendered its resignation. When the 
operations began against the Dardanelles the Government 
believed that the time had come for Greece to enter the war. 
The King refused to countenance the plan, arguing that the 
sending of forces to the Dardanelles would dangerously 
weaken the Greek defences on the Bulgarian frontier. Queen 
Sophia was regarded as bitterly opposed to the country join- 
ing the Allies, and was reported to have threatened several 
times to leave the country. 

The criticism directed against Constantine was severe be- 
cause, under the terms of the treaty made in the Balkan war, 
Greece was committed to ally herself with Servia if that coun- 
try were attacked by another power. Austria did invade 
Servia, but Constantine asserted that the treaty applied only 
to an attack by another Balkan nation. 

ACCUSED OF EVASION. 

The occupation by troops of the Entente Powers of a 
part of Macedonia, and the seizure of Salonica as their base, 
involved the King of Greece in a long series of clashes with 
the Entente commanders, and he was accused of evasion and 
attempting to gain time in the interests of Germany. A tem- 
porary understanding was obtained, but meantime the pro- 
visional government, headed by Venizelos, had been growing 
in strength, and obtained the recognition of the Entente 
Powers. 

The Allies laid an embargo on the supplies of Greece, 
and Constantine was denounced by the people of Crete and 
other territory, who demanded his dethronement. This was 
the situation, in a general way, which led to his abdication 
and his retirement to Berlin, with the Queen, in the summer 
of 1917. 

Alexander, who succeeded his father, was a second son, 



268 THE WORLD RULERS AT WAR. 

born August 1, 1893. He was a captain in the First Regi- 
ment, artillery, in the Greek army. 

Victor Emmanuel, King of Italy, who threw the weight 
of his country with the Allies, repudiating the treaty with 
Germany and Austria-Hungary which established what was 
known as the Triple Entente, was born in 1869, the only son 
of King Humbert, second King of United Italy, who was 
murdered at Monza, in July, 1900. Victor Emmanuel married 
Princess Elena, daughter of Nicholas, King of Montenegro, 
and has four children: Princess Yolanda, Princess Mafalda; 
Prince Humbert, heir-apparent, and Princess Giovanna. The 
mother of King Emmanuel — Dowager Queen Margherita — 
is a daughter of the later Prince Ferdinand of Savoy. 

TRAGEDY THE PATHWAY TO THRONE. 

Charles I, the Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary, 
was born in 1887 and succeeded his grand uncle, Francis 
Joseph I, in November, 1916. His way to the throne lay 
through tragedy, for he came into the crown immediately 
through the assassination of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, 
heir-apparent, and his morganatic wife Countess Sophie 
Chotek, in Bosnia, and which crime was the signal for the war. 
Nor would Charles have been entitled to succeed to the throne 
but for the fact that the Archduke Rudolf, heir-apparent to 
the throne, committed suicide in 1889. 

The right of succession went with his death to the second 
brother of the then Emperor Francis Joseph, or Archduke 
Charles Louis, father of the assassinated Archduke Francis 
Ferdinand. It passed then after the tragedies to Archduke 
Otto, brother of Francis Ferdinand, Charles I, being the son 
of the Archduke Otto. The young Emperor married Princess 
Zita of Bourbon Parma in 1911. She is the daughter of Duke 
Robert of Parma, and sister of the first wife of Czar Ferdi- 
nand of Bulgaria. The Emperor has four children: Francis 



THE WORLD RULERS AT WAR. 269 

Joseph Otto, Adelaide Marie, Robert Charles Ludwig and 
Felix Frederic August. 

Ferdinand of Bulgaria, Czar, is son of the late Prince 
Augustus of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and late Princess Clem- 
entine of Bourbon-Orleans, daughter of King Louis Phil- 
ippe. He was born in 1861 and succeeded Prince Alexander, 
who abdicated. He married Marie Louise, daughter of 
Robert of Parma, and after her death married Princess Elea- 
nore of Reuss-Kostritz. There are four children by the first 
marriage : Prince Boris, heir-apparent ; Prince Cyril, Princess 
Eudoxia, Princess Nadejda. 

Alfonso XIII, King of Spain, was born May 17, 1886, 
his father, King Alfonso XII, having died nearly six months 
previous to his birth. Maria Christina, mother of the heir to 
the Spanish throne, was an Austrian princess. In 1906 King 
Alfonso XIII married the English Princess Victoria Eugenie, 
daughter of the late Henry of Battenberg and Princess 
Beatrice, a daughter of the late Queen Victoria. 

KING ALFONSO'S SONS. 

King Alfonso XIII has four sons: Alfonso, Prince of 
the Asturias, heir to the Spanish throne; Prince Jaime, who 
is deaf and dumb; Prince Juan, and Prince Gonzalo. There 
are two daughters, Princess Beatrice, and Princess Maria 
Christina. 

The King's sisters were Maria de las Mercedes, who mar- 
ried Prince Carlos of Bourbon, in February, 1901, and died 
in 1904, and Infanta Maria Teresa, who died suddenly from 
the effects of childbirth. She was the wife of Prince Ferdi- 
nand, who afterward remarried Dona Maria Luisa Pie de Con- 
cha, who was created Duchess of Talavera de la Reina, and 
given the courtesy title of Highness by Alfonso. Don Carlos, 
who was born in 1848, and was the pretender to the Spanish 
throne, was a second cousin to the King. He died in 1909, leav- 



270 THE WORLD RULERS AT WAR. 

ing a son, Prince Jamie, born in 1870, and who is the present 
pretender, and four daughters. 

The Spanish reigning family are the Bourbons, descend- 
ants of King Louis XIV of France. 

Ferdinand, King of Roumania, was born in 1865, and is 
a nephew of the late King Carol, who died in 1914. In 1893 
he married Princess Marie of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, and 
two sons and four daughters were born to the royal couple as 
follows: Charles, who was born in 1893, and who is heir- 
apparent; Nicholas, Elizabeth, Marie, Ileana and Mircia, the 
latter dying when four years old. 

POINCAIRE'S VERSATILITY. 

President Poincaire, of France, is a bearded, pale-faced, 
short, and rather stout man, who leaves upon those who come 
in contact with him, an impression of his mental ability. He 
was born in 1860, and is regarded as one of the few strong 
characters who have held the office of President since the war 
which brought about the third Republic. He is an author of 
widely read books, and has won a place in the French 
Academy. As a lawyer he was a leader at the bar, and before 
being chosen President, in 1913, he served as Minister of 
Finance, and as Minister of Public Instruction. While serv- 
ing as Minister of Finance he is credited with having put on 
the statutes admirable laws regulating and equalizing the tax- 
ations of millions. President Poincaire is a patron of art, 
and has been counsel of the Beaux Art, of the National 
Museum and President of the Society of Friends of the Uni- 
versity of Paris. 

The Sultan of Turkey, the outstanding nation in the 
conflict, not Christian, was chosen ruler and took the Osman 
sword on May 10, 1909, and was designated Mohammed V. 
His name is Mohammed Reshad EfFendi, and he succeeded 
Abd-ul-Hamid, who was deposed. The latter became Sultan 



THE WORLD RULERS AT WAR. 271 

m 1876, succeeding Abd-ul-Aziz, who was preceded by Abd- 
ul-Mejid. 

The history of the Ottoman Empire is filled with mystery, 
romance and stories of intrigue, cruelty and barbarities, involv- 
ing internal wars, uprisings, almost continuous struggles with 
practically all of the European countries and massacres that 
aroused the whole world. Legend assigns Oghuz, son of Kara 
Khan, father of the Ottoman Turks, whose first appearance 
in history dates back to 1227 A. D. 

The reign of Abd-ul-Aziz in the latter part of the last 
century was marked by many massacres and the extravagant 
conduct of affairs by the Sultan, who visited England in 1876 
and was honored by Queen Victoria, who bestowed upon him 
the Order of the Garter. He was deposed and Abd-ul- 
Hamid succeeded. He made feeble attempts to reorganize 
the Government, but his efforts were fruitless and following 
wars and uprisings and further internal troubles and the loss 
of territory he was deposed and the present Sultan was chosen. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

THE WAK'S WHO'S WHO. 

Striking Figures in the Conflict — Joffre, the Hebo of Marne — Nivelle, the 
French Commander — Sir Douglas Haig — The Kaiser's Chancellor — Ven- 
izelosi — " Black Jack " Pershing. 

ONE of the most striking figures among those whose 
names are irrevocably linked with the history of the 
world fight for democracy, is that of Joseph Joffre, 
Marshal of France, former Commander of the French forces 
and yictor of the famous battle of the Marne, who led the 
French Mission to the United States, after America entered 
the war. 

The Commander-in-Chief of all the French armies, a man 
of humble birth, saw the light of day at Perpignan, near the 
Pyrenees, in 1852. 

The future General early showed a deep interest in mathe- 
matics and obtained the degree of Bachelor of Science at the 
College of Perpignan at the early age of 16. He was a stu- 
dent at the Polytechnic Institute when the Franco-German 
War of 1870 broke out. Joffre was placed in charge of a 
large part of the defense of Paris and drew the plans of the 
fortifications in the direction of Enghein. At the age of 19 
he was promoted to Captaincy in the presence of Marshal 
MacMahon and his whole staff. 

Marshal Joffre traveled much and spent a great many 
years fighting France's colonial wars. He served in the 
Formosa campaign of 1885; constructed a chain of forts at 
Tonkin, Cochin-China ; was decorated for distinguished 
bravery in leading his troops in action there in the eighties; 
was Chief Engineer of the Engineering Corps at Hanoi, and 
undertook the building of a railroad from Senegal to the Niger 
River in 1892. 

Joffre fought through the Dahomey Campaign in 1893; 

272 



THE WAR'S WHO'S WHO. 273 

saved the day for the French in a brilliant rear-guard action 
and entered Timbuctoo as a conqueror. Later he proceeded 
to Madagascar, where he constructed fortifications and organ- 
ized a naval station. 

Recalled to France, General Joffre became a Professor 
in the War College and obtained his stars in 1901. He later 
entered the Engineering Department of the War Ministry; 
then became Military Governor of Lille. Later he was pro- 
moted to be a Division Commander in Paris and then com- 
mander of the Second Army Corps at Amiens. He gained 
the honor in 1911 of a unanimous vote of the Superior Council 
of War making him Commander of all the military forces of 
France. 

A FAMOUS WAR RECORD. 

His record in the World War is well known. Every one 
has read of his masterly conduct of the retreat from the 
Belgian border; of his work in regrouping the shattered and 
retiring French forces; of his ringing appeal to the men to 
strike back at the moment he had determined upon. At the 
Marne he saved France and perhaps the world. 

Joffre is unsympathetic and grim when at work. He has 
no patience for anything but the highest efficiency. At a 
single stroke he cashiered a score of Generals who did not 
measure up to his standards. He is a master builder, organ- 
izer and strategist. Though rather taciturn he is loved both 
by the officers and poilus. Among the latter he became known 
as "Papa" Joffre. 

He showed by his appointments and acts that a new 
inspiration — an inspiration of patriotism — controlled the 
Republic. Joffre's accession to supreme command symbolized 
that France had experienced a new birth, that the army was 
well organized and that the man who for three years had been 
silently performing the regeneration of the land forces had 
rightly been placed over the forces he had reformed. 

HR 18 



274 THE WAR'S WHO'S WHO. 

Almost unknown to the masses, Joffre was placed at the 
head of the French troops in the summer of 1914. Among 
his associates he was known as an authority on aeroplanes, 
automobiles, telegraphs and the other details of modern war- 
fare. Above everything else he stood for efficiency and pre- 
paredness, and lacked the qualities of the French soldier of 
literature. To be prepared for instant war had been his effort 
for three years, and when that time came France found her- 
self nearly as well prepared for the conflict as was Germany, 
which had prepared for twenty-five years. 

ADJURATION TO SCHOOL CHUMS. 

One of his few published speeches, made to his old school 
chums, is on this theme. "To be prepared in our days," he 
said, "has a meaning which those who prepared for and fought 
the wars of other days would have great difficulty in under- 
standing. It would be a sad mistake to depend upon a sudden 
burst of popular enthusiasm, even though it should surpass 
in intensity that of the volunteers of the Revolution, if we do 
not fortify it by complete preparation. 

"To be prepared we must assemble all the resources of the 
country, all the intelligence of her children, all their moral 
energy and direct them toward a single aim — victory. We must 
have organized everything, foreseen everything. Once hostil- 
ities have begun no improvisation will be worth while. What- 
ever lacks then will be lacking for good and all. And the 
slightest lack of preparation will spell disaster." 

What Joffre said to his chums he had done for the French 
army, and President Poincare, after the Battle of the Marne, 
summed up his qualities which made it a French victory in 
this message to Joffre: "In the conduct of our armies you 
have shown a spirit of organization, order and of method 
whose beneficent effects have influenced every phase, from 
strategy to tactics; a wisdom cold and cautious, which has 
always prepared for the unexpected, a powerful soul which 



THE WAR'S WHO'S WHO. 275 

nothing has shaken, a serenity whose salutary example has 
everywhere inspired confidence and hope." 

These words of the President of the French Republic are 
an epitome of the character and the military record of Joffre. 
He is representative of the real France, not the France of 
Paris and scandals. He is of the peasantry, and he and his 
kind, men of character, brought about the glorious France of 
the war. 

Among those who accompanied Joffre on his visit to the 
United States was Rene Viviani, ex-Premier of France and 
Minister of Justice. He was born in Algeria in 1862, his 
family being Corsican, and originally of Italian blood. 

VIVIANI A SOCIALIST LEADER. 

M. Viviani became a lawyer in Paris and built up a large 
practice. In 1893 he entered the Chamber of Deputies as a 
Socialist. Together with Briand, Jaures and Millerand he 
was long a leader of the parliamentary delegation of Social- 
ists. On June 1, 1914, one month before the outbreak of the 
war, M. Viviani became Prime Minister. He showed himself 
a brilliant leader and tireless worker. His speeches embodying 
the spirit of fighting France were read and admired the world 
over. Many persons consider Rene Viviani France's greatest 
orator. Volumes of his speeches have had a wide sale. 

M. Viviani was succeeded in the Premiership by M. 
Briand, and recently he became Minister of Justice in the 
Ribot Cabinet. He is a man of great culture. Though an 
excellent Latin and Greek scholar, he speaks no English. 
Rene Viviani has had some experience as a newspaper man, 
as a special writer and as managing editor of the Petite 
Republique. His younger son, aged 22, was killed in the 
war. His older son has been wounded but is back at the front. 

Another member of the French mission was M. de Hovel- 
acque, the French Inspector General of Public Instruction. 



276 THE WAR'S WHO'S WHO. 

He is well known in the United States because of his marriage 
to Miss Josephine Higgins, of New York State. 

The Right Honorable Arthur Balfour, ex-Premier of 
England, who came to America to join in the conferences at 
which the policies for carrying the war were outlined after 
America became an Ally, is described as one of the most intel- 
lectual statesmen in England, and one who, although he won 
all the honors his country could give him, never realized his 
own possibilities. At sixty-nine, at the height of his mental 
development, he occupies a place in the English cabinet, a 
place which was given him because of his great hold upon the 
autocracy of England. 

BALFOUR'S INTELLECTUAL ABILITY. 

As the Premier of England, as Secretary of Ireland and 
as the leader of the House of Commons Mr. Balfour displayed 
great intellectual agility, but at no time was credited with 
having displayed the industry which spurred on such men as 
Lloyd George to success. He is of the aristocracy and his 
position in English politics came to him as the nephew of Lord 
Salisbury. 

He was born in 1848 and educated at Eton and Cam- 
bridge and entered the House of Commons at the age of 26. 
Mr. Balfour was known in his early years as a philosophically 
and religiously inclined young man, and it occasioned some 
surprise when he followed the traditions of his family by enter- 
ing politics. 

Some years after taking his seat he joined what was 
known as the Fourth Party, a conservative rebel faction, con- 
sisting of three members, Lord Randolph Churchill, Sir Henry 
Drummond Wolff and Sir John Gorst. This group consti- 
tuted a sort of mugwump element that voted independently 
on every party question and that tried to rouse the Conserva- 
tives from their party prejudices and narrow leanings. 

To Mr. Balfour belonged the distinguished honor of 



THE WAR'S WHO'S WHO. 277 

attending the Berlin Conference of 1878 as private secretary 
to Lord Salisbury. In 1885 he became President of the Local 
Government Board. The Conservatives were thrown out of 
power for a short time at this juncture, but when they were 
restored in 1886 Balfour became Secretary for Scotland. 
Shortly after he was promoted to be Chief Secretary for 
Ireland. 

Despite his gentle manners and quiet ways, the new Chief 
Secretary ruled the then disturbed Ireland with an iron hand. 
He was known as "Bloody Balfour" by the Irish agitators 
until he began to show his milder ways upon the restoration of 
peace. He remained in Ireland until 1891. He had endured 
abuse and faced threats and had come away triumphant. From 
Ireland Mr. Balfour went to England as First Lord of the 
Treasury. 

Arthur James Balfour showed his friendship for the 
United States when, in 1897, as Acting Secretary for Foreign 
Affairs, he refused to give England's consent to a continental 
proposal that Spain be permitted to govern Cuba as she chose. 

LIBERALS COME INTO POWER. 

When Lord Salisbury died in 1902 Mr. Balfour succeeded 
him as Prime Minister. He remained in that office until 1905, 
when the Liberals came into power. In the coalition Ministry 
formed since the outbreak of the European War, he was nomi- 
nated First Lord of the Admiralty. He showed remarkable 
ability in this office. Upon the resignation of Mr. Asquith's 
Cabinet, Mr. Balfour became Secretary for Foreign Affairs. 
He is an enthusiastic sportsman and has written a book on golf. 

The other English envoys who accompanied Mr. Balfour 
to Washington were Rear Admiral Sir Dudley Rawson 
Stratford de Chair, and Lord Walter Cunliffe, Governor of 
the Bank of England. 

Rear Admiral de Chair was born August 30, 1864. He 
entered the Royal Navy at the age of 14, and received his 



278 THE WAR'S WHO'S WHO. 

early training aboard His Majesty's Ship Britannia. He 
served in the Egyptian war and was naval attache at Washing- 
ton in 1902. 

Admiral de Chair commanded the Bacchante, Cochrane 
and Colossus successively in the years between 1905 and 1912. 
From 1912 to 1914 he acted as Assistant Controller of the 
Navy and subsequently he was the Naval Secretary to the 
First Lord of the Admiralty. At the outbreak of the war he 
became Admiral of the training services and of the Tenth 
Cruiser Squadron. Admiral de Chair is a member of the 
Royal Victorian Order and a Companion of the Bath. 
LORD WALTER CUNLIFFE. 

Lord Walter Cunliffe, Governor of the Bank of England, 
is 52 years old. He received his education at Harrow and 
at Trinity College, Cambridge, from which he graduated with 
the degree of Master of Arts. He is a Lieutenant of the City 
of London. 

Lord Cunliffe has been active in the banking field for 
many years and is a member of the firm of Cunliffe Brothers. 
He is a Director of the North Eastern Railway Company and 
has been a Director of the Bank of England since 1895. He 
became Deputy Governor of the bank in 1911 and has been 
Governor since 1913. Lord Cunliffe is the first Governor 
of the Bank of England to receive the honor of re-election 
after serving his term of two years. In 1914 he was created 
the First Baron of Headley. 

Among the dominating characters of the war and upon 
whose judgment and ability the destinies of France and the 
Allies depended for a long period is General Robert Nivelle, 
Commander of the French armies, and who succeeded General 
Joffre. General Nivelle is a man of silence; he speaks little. 
General Nivelle is four years younger than Joffre. 

As a boy of fourteen he could not take part as did Joffre 
and Gallieni and Pau and Kitchener also, in the tragical war 



THE WAK'S WHO'S WHO. 279 

of 1870. Joffre studied at the Ecole Polytechnique, in Paris; 
Gallieni, at Saint Cyr, without the walls; Nivelle studied at 
both; he may claim to belong to all arms, artillery, infantry — 
even cavalry. And, in his youth, he was not only a magnificent 
all-round athlete, as indeed he still is, but also a headlong rider 
of steeplechases, in which, had he been fated to break his neck, 
his neck would infallibly have been broken. This is a trait 
he shares with General Brussiloff, and, like the great Russian 
General, he was famous for the skill with which he tamed and 
trained cavalry mounts. 

SERVES AS JUNIOR OFFICER. 

As a junior officer Nivelle saw service in the French 
General Staff; his part in the expedition to China we have 
recorded; he also served in Northern Africa. So that, like 
Joffre, Gallieni, Lyautey, Roques and so many leaders of 
French armies, Nivelle gained an invaluable element of his 
training in the out-of-the-way corners of France's vast col- 
onial empire, which has outposts in every continent and meas- 
ures nearly five million square miles. 

At the outbreak of the World War Nivelle, with the rank 
of Colonel, commanded the Fifth Regiment of Artillery, which 
is the artillery element of the Seventh Army Corps, the corps 
of Besancon and the old Franche-Comite, under the Jura 
Mountains, at the corner of Switzerland and Alsace. 

It was, in fact, in the section of Alsace invaded and re- 
taken by the French army of General Pau — who lost an arm 
in Alsace in the war of 1870 — that Nivelle struck the first of 
many hard blows which made him Field Commander of the 
splendid army of France. He directed the guns of his Fifth 
Regiment with such deadly accuracy against a group of Ger- 
man guns that he first scattered their gunners in flight and put 
them out of action, and then led them off in triumph, twenty- 
four guns in all, the first great trophy won by the arms of 
France. 



280 THE WAR'S WHO'S WHO. 

In the battle of the Ourcq, fought with superb tenacity 
and dash by Manoury and his men, the first decisive blow of 
the great battle, the first definite victory, was gained ; General 
von Kluck's' right wing was smashed in and out-flanked, with 
the result that the whole German line was dislocated and sent 
hurtling backward. 

In that battle and victory Colonel Nivelle, as he then was, 
had his part ; but it was on the Aisne, a f ew days later, that a 
strikingly brilliant act brought him into especial prominence. 
The Seventh Corps was attacked by exceedingly strong enemy 
forces and forced backward over the Aisne. Colonel Nivelle, 
commanding its artillery, saw his opportunity, and, himself 
leading on horseback, brought his batteries out into the open, 
right between the retreating Seventh Corps and the strong 
German forces that were pursuing them, already sure of 
victory. 

VICTORY TURNED TO SLAUGHTER. 

With that calm serenity which is his dominant character- 
istic in action, he let the Germans come close up to his guns in 
serried masses. Then he opened fire, at short range, with 
deadly precision, so that the expected victory was turned into 
a slaughter. The broken German regiments, fleeing to the 
woods beside the Aisne for safety, ran upon the bayonets of 
the rallied Seventh Corps, inspired to splendid valor by the 
magnificent action of their artillery. Of 6000 Germans who 
made that charge few indeed returned to their trenches. 

This was on September 16, 1914. Before the New Year 
the Artillery Colonel had been made a General of Brigade, 
and in January, 1915, the new General distinguished himself 
by stopping the tremendous and unforeseen German drive 
against Soissons. He was forthwith recommended for further 
promotion, and on February 18 was gazetted General of 
Division. Shortly after this be gained new laurels by captur- 
ing from the Germans the Quenevieres salient, 



THE WAR'S WHO'S WHO. 281 

This great commander was the son of Colonel Nivelle — 
and an English mother, a former Miss Sparrow, whose family 
lived at Deal, on the English Channel. In his married life 
General Nivelle has been exceedingly happy. 

The dominating figure in the English army when America 
entered the fray was Sir Douglas Haig. He succeeded Sir 
John French. 

Sir Douglas Haig was born under so favorable a star 
that he has long been known as "Lucky" Haig. Not that he 
has depended upon his luck to push him ahead in the army, 
for his record as a student and a worker wholly disproves this. 
But nevertheless fortune has showered many favors upon him. 
Among these favors the first and by no means the least is his 
very aristocratic lineage and the consequent high standing he 
has had in royal and influential circles. 

HAIG'S FAMILY TREE. 

Haig's family tree dates back at least six centuries and 
he comes of the very flower of Scotch stock. The virtues of 
the "Haigs of Bamersyde" were extolled by the poets of the 
thirteenth century. And to discuss this feature of his career 
without giving due credit to the position and influence of his 
wife would be ungallant as well as unfair. She was the Hon. 
Dorothy Vivian, daughter of the third Lord Vivian, and maid- 
of -honor to Queen Alexandra, and the pair were married in 
Buckingham Palace. 

He did not enter the army until after his graduation from 
Oxford and then he took service in the cavalry, the usual choice 
of the English "gentleman." When twenty-four years old, he 
received his commission as a Lieutenant in the Queen's Own 
Hussars, one of the ultra-fashionable regiments. Six years 
later he was made a Captain and then decided to take a regular 
military course at the Staff College. 

In 1898 he took part in Kitchener's campaign up the Nile 
and in the Soudan as a cavalry officer. He was then thirty- 



282 THE WAK'S WHO'S WHO. 

seven years old. He distinguished himself in several engage- 
ments, was "mentioned in the dispatches," was awarded the 
British medal and the Khedive's medal and was promoted to 
Major. 

His career in the Boer war, which followed that in Egypt, 
was characterized by distinguished services and numerous 
rapid promotions. It was during this latter war that Haig 
became attached to the staff of Sir John French, whom he 
succeeded in France and Flanders. He came out of the war 
in South Africa a full-fledged Colonel, and with a fresh supply 
of medals and "mentions." Then he was sent to India as 
Inspector General of Cavalry. 

DIRECTOR OF MILITARY TRAINING. 

He remained in the Indian service three years, and ther* 
was given a post at the war office in London, with the title of 
"Director of Military Training." He remained in London 
three years, when he was sent to India as Chief of the Staff 
of the Indian Army. Three years later he returned to Eng- 
land and was given what was known as the "Aldershot Com- 
mand," which, in fact, was the command of the real active 
British army. He had this post when the war broke. His 
assignment as Commander of the First Army Corps under 
Sir John French soon followed. 

The man, who next to the Kaiser had more to do with 
Germany's plans for world domination, is Dr. Theobold von 
Bethmann-Hollweg, Imperial Chancellor of Germany. 

The elevation of Hollweg to the Chancellorship came when 
Prince Bulow stood in the way of complete domination of 
Germany's policies by the militarists, headed by the Kaiser. 
Prince Bulow was dismissed and Bethmann-Hollweg became 
Chancellor in 1909. From that time on he dedicated his life 
to the achievement of a single aim — the completion of Ger- 
many's plans of aggression. 

Bethmann-Hollweg eomes from an old Prussian family 



THE WAR'S WHO'S WHO. 283 

ennobled in 1840. He was born about 1855 and was a student 
with the Kaiser at the University of Bonn. He studied law 
at Gottingen, Strassburg and Berlin, and for several years 
followed the law and was appointed a judge at Potsdam. 
APPOINTED PRUSSIAN HOME SECRETARY. 

In 1905 he was appointed Prussian Home Secretary, and 
it was then that his name first became familiar to the man in 
the street in Berlin. Shortly afterward he was appointed 
Assistant Chancellor of Prince Bulow, who was then Chan- 
cellor. 

It was during his service as Home Secretary that Beth- 
mann-Hollweg became largely converted to all that the most 
advanced Prussian militarism stood for. Ultimately be became 
a far more ardent Pan-German even than Prince Bulow. In 
a speech at Munich in 1908 he declared that though Germany 
was then happily free of all immediate anxiety so far as her 
foreign relations were concerned, her present and future posi- 
tion as a great Power must ultimately rest on her strong arm, 
and though the strength of her arm was greater than it ever 
had been it must grow yet stronger. 

It was a speech after the Kaiser's own heart — provocative 
and boasting to a degree. It had, as a matter of fact, it is said, 
been prepared by the Emperor, and was delivered by the 
Kaiser's order for the special benefit of Prince Bulow, who 
had at that time fallen out of favor with the Emperor. 

Grand Admiral Von Tirpitz is said to be the man who 
made the German navy. Having won the recognition of the 
Kaiser in 1894 he was promoted to Chief of Staff in the Ger- 
man navy, and was placed in command of Kiel. He was made 
Secretary of State in 1898 and immediately began the building 
up of the navy. New and modern methods of engineering 
were developed and finally he made such an impression with 
the Kaiser that he was ennobled. Von Tirpitz was the prin- 
cipal advocate of Germany's plans during a decade for having 



284 THE WAR'S WHO'S WHO. 

the navy powerful enough to equal the combined powers of 
any three great naval powers. 

Sir John Jellicoe, Vice Admiral and Commander-in-Chief 
of the British Naval Home Fleet had served more than forty 
years in the navy when the war broke out. He was a Lieuten- 
ant at the bombardment of Alexandria and was a member of 
the Naval Brigade which participated in the battle of Tel-el- 
Kebir, for activity in which he was presented with the Khe- 
dive's Bronze Star for gallant service. He was in command 
of the naval brigade which went to China in 1898 to help sub- 
due the Boxers and was shot at Teitsang, where he was deco- 
rated by the German Emperor, who conferred upon him the 
Order of the Bed Eagle. He was Bear- Admiral of the Atlan- 
tic Fleet in 1907-08, and Commander of the Second Home 
Squadron in 1911-12. To Admiral Jellicoe is given credit for 
having developed a high degree of efficiency among the gun- 
ners in the English navy. 

ADMIRAL HUGO POHL. 

Admiral Hugo Pohl, of the German navy, was born at 
Breslau in 1855. He became a Lieutenant in the Imperial 
German navy when but 21 years of age. He gained rapid 
promotion, and within a few years was Commodore in charge 
of the scouting ships. He had charge of setting up the now 
famous German naval stations from Kiel to Sonderberg in 
Schleswig in 1908 and was afterwards made Vice Admiral. 
He wears the medal of the Order of the Crown, bestowed upon 
him by the Kaiser for admirable service. 

One of the men whose names will be forever linked with 
the war, particularly with relation to the adoption of new 
methods of warfare, is that of Count Zeppelin, who died on 
March 8, 1917, and who was the father of the Zeppelin or 
dirigible balloon. The idea for the big airship did not origi- 
nate with Count Zeppelin, but with David Schwartz, a young 
Austrian, who built his first dirigible in 1893. He tried to 



THE WAR'S WHO'S WHO. 285 

arouse interest in his aircraft in Russia, but failed and finally 
went to Berlin, where he interested the then Baron Zeppelin. 
A balloon was made, but Schwartz fell ill and died. Zeppelin 
was later accused of attempting to steal the young Austrian's 
patents, and the courts made an award to Schwartz's widow of 
$18,000. 

Count Zeppelin's first airship came out about 1898. It 
was 300 feet long and had an aluminum frame. Short cruises 
were made in 1899 and 1900, and the craft maintained a speed 
of about sixteen miles an hour. A second airship was com- 
pleted in 1905, and later a third aircraft was finished. This 
dirigible made a cruise of 200 miles at an average speed of 
twenty miles. The success led Count Zeppelin to make his 
most ambitious attempt and he tried to cross the Alps carrying 
sixteen passengers. 

IN THE AIR THIRTY-SEVEN HOURS. 

He succeeded and passing through hailstorms, crossing 
eddies and encountering cross-currents he traveled 270 miles 
at an average speed of twenty-two miles an hour. Subse- 
quently he made a flight to England, remaining in the air 
thirty-seven hours. Fate played him false, however, in many 
of his ventures and he returned home after making remarkable 
voyages, only to have his craft destroyed at its very landing 
place. 

The German Government and the Kaiser joined in giving 
him a grant of money to carry on his work, and a plant was 
built at Frederichshafen. But while Count Zeppelin's name 
will be forever identified with aeronautics the successes which 
he attained were not enduring, for the Zeppelins proved not 
entirely satisfactory in military warfare in competition with 
the aeroplane. 

In the counsels of Greece the outstanding figure from the 
beginning of the war was Eleutherois Venizelos. He is 
credited with being responsible for the national revival in 



286 THE WAR'S WHO'S WHO. 

Greece when the country seemed doomed after the Turkish 
war of 1897. He was the leader of the country in the move- 
ment to join the Allies in the fight against German domination 
and he swayed the nation and held them as few men have. He 
was born in the Island of Crete in 1864, and according to tra- 
dition, his family descended from the medieval Dukes of 
Athens. He was educated in Greece and Switzerland and 
became active in Cretan politics, and won recognition as the 
strong man of the "Great Greek Island." 

TRANSFORMS A NATION. 

In less than three years after the distress in which the 
country found itself in 1909 he transformed the nation into 
one of solidarity. There had been meaningless squabbles of 
corrupt politicians and a sordid struggle for preferment. The 
army was degenerating and the popular fury became so great 
that there was an unrising of the army, which under the title 
of the "Military League," ousted the Government and took 
control of the country. The heads of the League brought 
forward Venizelos. The League dissolved and reforms were 
instituted which started the country on a new path, and when 
the Balkan war broke in 1912 Greece made a record and 
emerged in many respects the leader of the Balkan states. 

Sir John French is one of the English commanders who 
have rendered yeoman service in the war. He is one of the 
most striking military figures in England. He has seen serv- 
ice in India, Africa and Canada, and was one of the uniformly 
successful commanders in the Boer war. At the Siege of Kim- 
berly he was shut up in Ladysmith with the Boer lines drawing 
closer. He managed to secrete himself under the seat of a 
train on which women were being carried to safety. Outside 
the lines he made his way to the Cape, where he was put in 
charge of cavalry and in a terrific drive he swept through the 
Free State and reached Ladysmith in time to save the day. 

He originally entered the navy, but remained for a short 



THE WAR'S WHO'S WHO. 287 

time. He commanded the 19th Hussars from 1889 to 1903 
and then rose steadily in rank until he was made General 
Inspector of the Forces and finally Field Marshal in 1903. 

There should be no discrimination in naming those who 
have represented America in the country's activities at war, 
but because they came into the world's line of vision by being 
sent abroad for service there are some American commanders 
whose names will ever be remembered. 

Vice- Admiral William S. Sims is one of these. He is 
a Pennsylvanian who was born in Canada. His father was 
A. W. Sims, of Philadelphia, who married a Canadian and 
lived at Port Hope, where Admiral Sims first saw the light 
of day. He went to Annapolis when he was 17 years of age 
and was graduated in 1880. After this he secured a year's 
leave of absence and went to Prance, where he studied French. 
Subsequently he was assigned to the Tennessee, the flagship 
of the North Atlantic Squadron and passed through all grades 
of ships. He received promotion to a Lieutenancy when he 
was about 30 years of age. For a time he was in charge of 
the Schoolship Saratoga, and later was located at Charleston 
Navy Yard, and also with the receiving ship at the League 
Island Navy Yard, Philadelphia. After this he went to Paris 
as Naval Attache at the American Embassy. He was simi- 
larly Attache at the American Embassy at St. Petersburg. 

Admiral Sims was relieved of his European assignment 
in 1900 and joined the Asiatic fleet, and while abroad studied 
the methods of British gunnery. When he returned to 
America later he inaugurated reforms which increased the 
efficiency of the gunnery in the service 100 per cent. His 
successful efforts led to his appointment as Naval Aide to 
President Roosevelt. He made a report on the engagement 
between the British and German naval fleets at Jutland which 
was startling, and declared that the British battle cruisers had 
protected Great Britain from the invasion of the enemy. 



288 THE WAR'S WHO'S WHO. 

When he reached the European waters in command of 
the United States naval forces, with a destroyer flotilla, and 
the British officers who greeted him asked when the flotilla 
would be ready to assist in chasing the submarine and protect- 
ing shipping, Admiral Sims created a surprise by tersely 
replying: "We can start at once." And he did. Admiral 
Sims married Miss Anne Hitchcock, daughter of Former 
Secretary of the Interior. The couple have five children. 

Major General John J. Pershing, of the United States 
Army, Commander of the forces in France and Belgium, is 
one of the most picturesque figures in American military 
circles. "Black Jack" Pershing is what the officers call him, 
because he was for a long time commander of the famous 
Tenth Cavalry of Negroes, which he whipped into shape as 
Drillmaster, and which saved the Rough Riders from a great 
deal of difficulty at San Juan Hill in the Spanish- American 
War. He was also at the battle of El Caney where he was 
given credit for being one of the most composed men in action 
that ever graced a battlefield. He served with signal results 
in the campaign against the little "brown" men in the Philip- 
pines; was in charge of the expedition which chased Villa into 
Mexico. 

General Pershing was born in 1864 in Laclede, Missouri, 
and is tall, wiry and strong. Every inch of his six feet is of 
fighting material. He is a man of action and has a penchant 
for utilizing the services of young men rather than staid old 
officers of experience. Pershing is a real military man, and 
has been notably absent from such things as banquets and other 
functions where by talking he might get into the limelight. 
It is true that he was jumped over the heads of a number of 
officers by President Roosevelt, but he has carved his way by 
his own efforts, and no man could have more fittingly been 
sent to take charge of the American forces abroad than "Jack" 
Pershing. 



CHAPTER XVII. 
CHEMISTRY IN THE WAR. 

Substitutes foe Cotton — Nitrates Peoduced from Aie — Yeast a Keal Sub- 
stitute for Beef — Seaweed Made to GrvE up Potash — A Gangrene Pre- 
ventitve — Soda Made Out of Salt Water — America Chemically Indepen- 
dent. 

T IS when men are put to the test that they develop initia- 
tive and are inspired to great things. In the stress of 
circumstances there were created through and in the great 
war many unusual devices and much that will endure for the 
benefit of mankind in the future, lit is probable that the 
advancements made in many lines would not have been attained 
in years but for the necessity which demanded the exertion 
of men's ingenuity, and in no field was this advancement 
greater than in that of chemistry. 

Any struggle between men is, in the last analysis, a battle 
of wits, but it remained for those planning and scheming to 
defeat their fellow men or protect themselves in the world 
conflict to make for the first time in history the fullest use of 
the chemist's knowledge. Largely the successes of the war 
have been due to the studies and activities of the chemists, 
working in their laboratories far from the actual field of strife. 
~Not only has their knowledge been turned to the creation 
of tremendously destructive explosives, the like of which have 
never before been known in warfare, but the same brains which 
have been utilized to assist man in his death-dealing crusades 
have been called upon to thwart the efforts of the warring 
humans and save the lives of those compelled to face the wither- 
ing fire of cannon, the flaming grenade and the asphyxiating 
gas bomb. 

In the food crisis which confronted the nations, chemists 
drew from the very air and the waters of the river and sea, 

H R 19 289 



290 CHEMISTRY IN THE WAR. 

gases and salts to take the place of those which became limited 
in their supply because of the demands of the belligerents. 

The chemist is one of those who fights the battles at home. 
The resisting steel, the penetrating shell, the poisonous gas, the 
power-producing oil, the powerful explosive — all these are his 
contributions to the war's equipment, but he also is the magician 
who waves the wand and out of the apparently useless weeds 
and vegetable matter produces edibles. He turns waste prod- 
ucts into valuable chemicals or extracts needed chemicals from 
by-products. 

GERMANY'S GREAT PRIVATION. 

Germany, deprived of many imports by the sea power of 
England, first transformed herself into a self-supporting 
nation through the agency of the chemist. Substitutes had 
to be provided for food products which the Germans could 
not get, and it is said that the ability of the Kaiser and his 
henchmen to withstand the attacks of the Allied forces was 
due as much to the service rendered by the chemists as by the 
army and navy. 

Ntot only were artificial foodstuffs manufactured, but 
natural food products previously neglected were prepared for 
use. What had been regarded as useless weeds were found to 
possess food value. A dozen wild-growing plants were found 
that might be used as a substitute for spinach, while half a 
dozen others were shown to be good substitutes for salads. 
Starches were obtained from roots, and cheap grades of oils 
and fatty wastes of all sorts were turned into edibles. 

Up until the advent of the present war cotton formed the 
base of most of the so-called propellant explosives used in 
advanced warfare. Such terrible explosives as trinitrotoluene 
occasionally mentioned in the published war reports, as well as 
many others, have as the principal agent of destructive force 
guncotton, which is ordinary raw cotton or cellulose treated 
with nitric or sulphuric acid, though there are, of course, other 



CHEMISTRY IN THE WAE. 291 

chemicals used in compounding the various forms of deadly 
explosives. 

At the same time there are innumerable explosives which 
are of a distinct class. Lyddite, mentioned occasionally as 
one of the modern death-dealing explosives, has for a base 
picric acid. The Lyddite shells referred to occasionally in 
various articles about the war are shells in which Lyddite is 
used as the explosive. The largest percentage of explosives 
used in modern gunnery are those formed of nitrated cellulose 
— guncotton. 

TWO GREAT FACTORS. 

Therefore any shortage in the supply of cotton and cellu- 
lose is a serious matter in war time, for the country which 
has the most plentiful supply of ammunition is the one that 
has the greatest relative advantage. It was, for instance, 
stated from Washington several times after the war started 
and the United States commercial and industrial forces were 
being mobilized, that America could make enough almost unbe- 
lievably powerful explosives to blow Germany off the face of 
the European map, were it possible to transport the dangerous 
materials. Dozens of new explosive compounds were placed 
before the Government for consideration and in application 
for patents. One of the new ones, it was said, was so powerful 
that little more than a pinch of it exploded beneath such an 
immense structure as the Woolworth Building, New York, 
would destroy the entire edifice. 

The curtailment of the supply of cotton to Germany when 
the war started, because of England's blockade, and later when 
America entered the conflict, threatened disaster to the "Fath- 
erland." The German chemists began working immediately 
to supply substitutes for cotton, to be used both in the manu- 
facture of explosives and fabrics. They developed the 
processes of producing cellulose from wood pulp to take the 
place of cotton for making guncotton, and certain forms of 



292 CHEMISTRY IN THE WAR. 

wood fiber and paper were used in the textile trades. Willow 
bark was one of the substances utilized to a limited degree in 
making fabrics. 

Likewise synthetic — or artificial — camphor to take the 
place of that secured from nature's own laboratory — the cam- 
phor tree — was also produced of necessity, for camphor is an 
ingredient largely used in making smokeless powder. Before 
the war most of the camphor was obtained from Japan. 

Compounds — alloyed steel, iron and aluminum — have also 
been used in the industrial world to supplant copper. In 
America we have been educated to regard copper as the ideal 
metal for conducting electrical power, but in Europe aluminum 
was used successfully in a large way, even before the war. 
After the conflict started in all of the countries where there was 
a scant supply of copper, substitutes were developed by the 
metallurgists and chemists. 

POTENCY OF MODERN CHEMISTRY. 

The acids and salts used in powder making and the crea- 
tion of explosives were also secured from new places. Nitric 
acid, which is necessary to the manufacture of guncotton, for 
many years was made principally with saltpeter and sulphuric 
acid. Modern chemists, however, made it from nitrogen of 
the very air we breathe, and in Germany it was made during 
the war from ammonia and calcium cyanamide, both of which 
may be obtained from the air. 

Many such methods of obtaining acids were known and 
tested before the war, but the processes had not been perfected 
to such an extent as to make them commercially profitable. 
However, the increased prices of chemicals, due to the exces- 
sive demands of war, and the absolute necessity for producing 
them inspired the chemists to get the required results, and 
Germany by the development of these sources of supply found 
the acids necessary for her own use in war, whether for explo- 
sive making or medical purposes. 



CHEMISTEY IN THE WAR. 293 

Great quantities of sugar are used in making powder and 
explosives, too, and when the supply became limited the Ger- 
man chemists began producing in larger quantities the chem- 
ical substitute — saccharine. Later even this sweet was denied 
the population because the chemicals were needed for war 
uses. So in every line Germany found use for everything 
which its chemists and chemical laboratories could produce. 

The terrible gas and liquid fire bombs which the Germans 
were first reported using contained chemical compounds 
invented for the purpose by the chemists. Some of the chem- 
icals and the gases produced when the bombs exploded were 
so powerful that men and animals in the range of the fumes 
were killed instantly. The effect was to paralyze them in some 
cases and it was reported that many of the soldiers were found 
dead standing upright in the trenches or in the attitudes which 
they had assumed at the moment they were overcome. 
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF BOMBS. 

Mtrous-oxide, or chlorine, in some chemical form is 
supposed to have been the base of the bombs, and concerning 
the liquid fire it was reported in connection with the dropping 
of bombs on London from a Zeppelin, that some of the bombs 
contained what is chemically known as Thermit, which is a mix- 
ture of aluminum and iron oxide used in brazing and welding. 
When ignited the oxygen is freed from the iron and combines 
with the aluminum with great rapidity. During the chemical 
reaction an intense heat is produced — a heat so great that it 
almost equals that of an electric arc. 

So in the world of agriculture and industry the German 
chemists, recognized leaders of the world, actually made or 
produced from the air and other unsuspected sources things 
without which they could not have withstood the siege against 
them for a single year. In the absence of concentrated foods 
for cattle and humans, the chemists produced absolute substi- 
tutes. They took the residue or waste from the breweries and 

/ 



294 CHEMISTRY IN THE WAR. 

extracting the bitter hops taste from the dried yeast produced 
a substitute for beef extract. 

So also they secured ammonium sulphate by a direct 
combination of nitrogen and hydrogen in the air. At the 
same time they utilized other minerals than those usually avail- 
able for the manufacture of sulphuric acid and placed the 
country on an independent footing. 

But Germany was not alone in its advancement. The 
United States, which found itself without quantities of dye- 
stuffs and many other chemically produced things when the war 
came on, took the lesson unto itself and is today nearer self- 
supporting than it ever was in the history of the nation. The 
Department of Agriculture has experimented and produced 
from yeast, vegetable boullion cubes, which taste like beef 
extract and contain greater nutriment. 

DOMESTIC DYE-STUFFS. 

America, too, has extracted sulphate of ammonium from 
the air and the dye-stuffs which we could not get from abroad 
are being made at home. Two of the things which America 
found lacking when war developed were potash and acetone, 
both of which are factors in powder and explosive making. 
The former is used in the ordinary black gunpowder, but the 
latter is necessary in the making of the smokeless powder. 
England wanted Cordite, one form of this powder which the 
British think is the best propellant in the world. It is made of 
guncotton and nitroglycerine and acetone is one of the chem- 
icals required in its manufacture. England turned to the 
United States for quantities of this explosive and also for the 
acetone, but America did not produce anywhere near enough, 
and England wanted this country to make something like 
20,000,000 pounds of the explosive. 

A number of mushroom chemical plants were developed 
by the powder company to produce the desired acetone — one 
very much like a vinegar plant near Baltimore, and another at 



CHEMISTRY IN THE WAR. 295 

San Diego, California, where the munitions maker's chemists 
refined acetone and potash extracted from kelp, or sea weed, 
and besides supplying the powder and the chemicals which the 
English needed America developed a permanent industry. 

RELIEVED BY AMERICAN INGENUITY. 

Carbolic acid, too, was one of the badly needed chemicals 
of the war, not only for medical purposes, but also for explosive 
making. Again the ingenuity of America asserted itself and 
Thomas A. Edison produced the plans for two benzol-absorb- 
ing plants which were erected at great steel works and within a 
few months these plants were turning out benzol and Mr. 
Edison's carbolic-acid plant was being supplied with the raw 
material. 

And then it was believed that America could not make 
dyes to take the place of those which came from Germany. All 
the United States, it was said, would have to wear white stock- 
ings. The country just could not produce the dyes necessary, 
and the product of the American plants was inferior. But 
America could make the same dyes. She is making them. 
Right now she is making practically as great a variety as 
Germany even sent over here. 

A few miles outside of Philadelphia, at Marcus Hook, on 
the busy Delaware river where the ships of the world are 
being made, the Benzol Products Company turns out large 
quantities of aniline oil. The aniline oil, the essential basis of 
aniline dyes, is made into tints as fair and perfect as any the 
wizards of Germany ever conjured out of their test tubes. 

The tale about America's inability was proved to be a 
fable. The Marcus Hook plant is one of three which sprang 
up when the war began. Others are the Schoellkopf Aniline 
and Chemical Works at Buffalo and a third is the Becker 
Aniline and Chemical Works at Brooklyn. The three are now 
merged into one great operating company and Germany will 



296 CHEMISTRY IN THE WAR. 

have some difficulty in getting back her dye trade when she is 
ready to again fight for the world markets. 

Moreover, the world-famous duPont Company, which 
has made powder and chemicals for all the nations, turned in 
and purchased the Harrison Chemical Works in 1917, and 
besides making "pigments" has entered the coal tar dye 
industry. The company made an intensive study of the dyeing 
industries — cotton, calico printing, wool, silk, leather, paper, 
paints, printing inks, &c, and made plans to meet the require- 
ments of each. The Harrison plant is but one of the immense 
group operated by the duPont Company and it has been 
famous for the manufacture of white lead and acids. 
A CHEMICAL DISCOVERY. 

There is in fact no line in which the chemists of America 
did not rise to the emergency,, and the "romances of the 
industrial" world are not more entrancing than are those of 
the medical and other fields. Chemistry, for instance, dis- 
covered an anti-toxin for the deadly gangrene, or gas bacillus, 
poisoning of the battlefields. The discovery was made by 
research workers in Rockefeller Institute. 

It is one of the most important discoveries in medical 
research as applied to war, having an even greater bearing 
on the treatment of war wounds than the Dakin- Carrel treat- 
ment of sluicing wounds previously referred to. The ssrum 
works on the same principle as the anti-tetanus serum used 
to prevent lockjaw. The gangrene antitoxin is injected to 
prevent the development of gangrene poisoning. 

The serum was developed by Dr. Carrel Bull and Miss 
Ida W. Pritchett, of the Rockefeller Institute, by immunizing 
horses by the application of the bacillus germs, then obtaining 
the resultant serum from the horses. The new serum dis- 
places, in a measure, the Dakin- Carrel method of treating 
wounds. As soon as a soldier is picked up wounded, the plan 
is to give him an injection of the serum so that he can be 



CHEMISTRY IN THE WAR. 297 

rushed to the rear ambulances with no fear that the deadly 
gas infection will develop. 

The use of the serum means the wiping out of the big 
death rate from infection, with death resulting merely from 
wounds that are in themselves fatal. The gas bacillus was 
discovered by Dr. William H. Welch, of Johns Hopkins Uni- 
versitj'-, 25 years ago. The bacillus frequently is present in 
soil and when carried to an open wound germinates quickly, 
developing into bubbles of gaseous matter, whence comes the 
name "gas bacillus." The bubbles multiply rapidly, a few 
hours often being sufficient to cause death. 

A WOUND-FLUSHING SYSTEM. 

Possible gangrene poisoning has been offset by the Dakin- 
Carrel system of constantly flushing the open wounds, but 
patients are requently too far off to be given the advantage of 
the flushing method and this is where the serum is chiefly valu- 
able. The ambulance or medical corps "shoots" the serum 
into the wounded soldier even before they douse his wound 
with iodine. 

The progress that has been made along these lines is 
indicated by the statement of Lord Northcliffe, who after a 
visit to the front declared that the annual death rate in the 
English army was 3 per cent of 1000 and that the average 
illness, including colds and influenza, was less than in London, 
despite the discomforts of the trenches. 

In the past disease has been as destructive as battles. 
Biology and pathology, to say nothing of surgery and thera- 
peutics, have made such strides that disease has been virtually 
eliminated as a factor in warfare. War takes medical science 
into the field, where the control of large masses of men enables 
it to develop the highest efficiency. 

Even in normal peace conditions biological and patholog- 
ical science has been accomplishing results not popularly under- 
stood. Individual cures by surgery and medicine appeal to 



208 CHEMISTRY IN THE WAR. 

personal interests, but these are negligible compared to the 
prevention of plagues like smallpox, typhus and tuberculosis. 
If such diseases had not been successfully combated by science 
three out of four of the present civilized population would not 
be in existence at all. The organized and intensive application 
and developments of science, of preventive medicine, constitute 
the strictly neutral work in this war by which all humanity will 
profit for all time to come. 

In passing it is interesting to note that the great power 
supplied by Niagara Falls is being utilized to produce some of 
the chemical marvels. One great industry there is making 
soda by the electrolytic process. That is, salt brine is pumped 
from the saline deposits in western New York and piped to the 
works. This is run into electric cells and through these a 
current of electricity is led. The salt, which is composed of 
chlorine and sodium, decomposes under the electric attack. 
The sodium goes to one pole and combines with water to form 
caustic soda, whereas the chlorine escapes at the other pole. 
Let us follow the chlorine, which is a yellowish-green gas, more 
than twice as heavy as air, and has found a new use as poison 
gas in the great war — for which all the world should be 
ashamed. 

It is collected and compressed to a liquid form and shipped 
in containers under pressure for use in chemical works and 
bleacheries and for the purification of drinking water. It has 
been found above all things effective in destroying noxious 
bacilli. A surprisingly small amount of the gas dissolved in 
the water is enough. In New York city the water has been 
chlorinated and no single case of typhoid fever has been traced 
to the supply. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 
OUR NEIGHBORING ALLY. 

Canada's Eecruiting — Raise 33,000 Teoops in Two Months — First Expedi- 
tionary Force to Cross Atlantic — Bravery at Ypres and Lens — Meeting 
Difficult Pboblems — Quebec Aeoused by Consceiption. 

THE world has marvelled at the achievement of Canada 
at Valcartier camp near Quebec and the dispatch across 
the Atlantic Ocean of a fully equipped expeditionary- 
force of 33,000 men within two months of the outbreak of war 
between Great Britain and Germany. But the magnitude of 
that feat cannot be appreciated properly until one considers 
that on August 4, 1914, Canada had a permanent force of only 
about 3500 men. 

These soldiers, who for the most part were instructors and 
men on guard duty, provided a nucleus for a training organiza- 
tion. In addition to its "standing army," the Dominion had 
an active militia numbering approximately 60,000 men. Their 
training consisted of what has been aptly called "after-supper 
soldiering." Members of city regiments drilled for one night 
each week, participated in an annual church parade and spent 
two weeks every year in summer camp. 

The training of the rural regiments consisted almost 
entirely of the two weeks in summer camp. Yet from these 
militia units were drawn a large proportion of the men in the 
first Canadian oversea contingent, while the militia regiments, 
to a large extent, formed the basis of Canada's recruiting 
organization after the outbreak of hostilities. 

Enlistments during the first two years in the expeditionary 
force numbered approximately 415,000, while probably 150,000 
applicants were rejected as physically unfit. 

Immediately upon the declaration of war Major General 
Sir Sam Hughes, Minister of Militia, telegraphed the officers 
commanding the militia regiments to commence recruiting for 

299 



300 OUR NEIGHBORING ALLY. 

oversea service. After the recruits were signed up and 
accepted, they lived at home and drilled during the day at the 
armories throughout the Dominion. 

Meanwhile, Valcartier camp was being prepared for the 
gathering army. The building of this great military center 
almost overnight was an engineering feat of no mean magni- 
tude. Two weeks after work was started, troops recruited by 
the militia regiments began to arrive, and before the end of a 
month Valcartier was a tented city of 25,000 soldiers. 

There were some complaints, of course. They were inevit- 
able in an encampment so hastily prepared. But the essentials 
were there, and when the contingent sailed from Gaspe, on the 
coast of Quebec, on October 8, it was a well-trained, efficient 
body of soldiers, besides being the largest army that ever 
crossed the Atlantic at one time. 

AN EFFICIENT COMMANDER. 

The contingent was in command of Lieutenant-General 
Edwin Alfred Hervey Alderson. He was born at Ipswich 
in 1859 and began his military career with the Militia, going 
to the regular army in 1878. He joined the Royal West Kent 
Regiment as Second Lieutenant and rapidly won promotion. 
He served in the Transvaal, later in Egypt and participated in 
actions at Kassassin and Tel-el-Kebir, receiving the Khedive's 
bronze star. Service in South Africa and in India followed, 
during which General Alderson successively became Captain, 
Major and Lieutenant Colonel. He became a Colonel in 1903 
and was placed in charge of the Second Infantry Brigade, and 
in 1908 commanded the Sixth Division, Southern Army of 
India, having meantime been given the rank of Major General. 

After the departure of the first contingent recruiting was 
continued by the militia regiments, and during the winter the 
men were quartered in exhibition grounds, Y. M. C As., sheds, 
etc. In the spring of 1915 existing camps were enlarged and 
new ones opened. 



OUR NEIGHBORING ALLY. 301 

During this period the recruiting machinery developed 
from the militia regiments. Through the latter officers were 
recommended to command new battalions. These O. Cs. 
selected most of their subordinate officers from their own militia 
regiments and used the parent organization as a general basis 
for recruiting operations, headquarters being located at the 
regimental armories. 

The keen competition existing between the militia units 
was maintained between the new oversea formations, and 
battalions were raised in a few weeks. For months enlist- 
ments all over Canada averaged more than 1000 men daily, 
and with recruits coming forward at this rate, there was no 
necessity of protracted delay in bringing battalions up to 
strength. 

DIFFICUTY OF RECRUITING. 

There was a disposition, especially in military circles, to 
attribute the increasing difficulty of the recruiting situation 
during the winter of 1915-16 and since to a change of system 
and the introduction of the so-called "political colonels." The 
change, however, was rather the result of new conditions than 
the cause of it. Recruiting had slowed down — largely from 
natural causes. 

A new appeal was needed to reach a class of eligible men 
who had not yet enlisted. The recruiting problem apparently 
had outgrown the facilities of the militia organizations. 
Rightly or wrongly, the government commissioned a number 
of well-known men, without military experience, to raise 
battalions. Their popularity and local confidence in them were 
the excuses for their appointment — and the experiment was 
in the main successful. 

Perhaps there was a suggestion of politics about it, 
although it may be stated emphatically that politics had not 
been a serious influence in connection with the recruiting, 
training or leadership of Canada's oversea forces. That such 



302 OUE NEIGHBORING ALLY. 

is the case stands to the enduring credit of Major General 
Hughes. 

The attempt to "popularize" recruiting was soon found 
to entail serious evils. Competition for recruits in an already 
well-combed field became very keen. The new political 
colonels realized that their reputations were at stake, and in 
the effort to fill up their battalions various undignified and 
regrettable expedients were employed. Cabarets, bean-count- 
ing contests, lotteries and callithumpian methods generally 
marked a period in Canada's recruiting history not pleasant 
to review, and which brought discredit upon the entire vol- 
untary enlistment system as a permanent method of filling 

up armies. 

TRAINING SERIOUSLY DELAYED. 

Besides the moral influence of such schemes to get men in 
khaki, the recruiting efforts of the political colonels had a 
serious effect in delaying the training of new men. With their 
personal reputations as organizers involved, the commanding 
officers were reluctant to admit inability to fill up the ranks of 
their units, and repeatedly pleaded for more time. 

For months partly recruited battalions made little or no 
progress with their training, while the officers devised new 
recruiting "stunts" and while men were being sought in the 
highways and byways. 

The situation was complicated by allowing a number of 
infantry battalions to recruit in the same area at the same time, 
with the result that the new men came in driblets, valuable time 
was lost and much money wasted. In some cases it has taken 
well over a year from the date when they were authorized before 
battalions were dispatched oversea — due very largely to 
ineffective recruiting methods. Battalions were allowed to 
continue the heart-breaking quest for recruits long after they 
should have been amalgamated and sent to England. Such 
amalgamations came ultimately, battalions retaining their iden- 
tity when leaving Canada only when 600 or more strong. 



OUR NEIGHBORING ALLY. 308 

The high cost of recruits was a direct consequence of com- 
petition among battalions recruiting independently in the same 
territory at the same time. The government allowance was not 
adequate to maintain the pace and had to be supplemented by 
private funds. 

There was in Toronto a certain group of fifty recruits 
referred to as the "$10,000 squad," because it is estimated that 
the cost of recruiting them averaged nearly $200 each, the 
money coming from private funds of officers and their friends. 
Perhaps the estimate involves some exaggeration, but many 
units added to their ranks only at a cost of $50 or more per 
recruit. 

Some idea of the waste of such a system may be secured 
when it is stated that, with men coming forward freely, the cost 
of recruiting is considerably less than $10 per man, even after 
allowing a generous bonus to the recruiting sergeants. More 
serious than the cost in money was the delay in training men 
needed at the front. 

A POLITICAL IMPOSSIBILITY, 

Canada's experience constitutes a severe indictment of the 
voluntary system of recruiting, although sterner measures at 
the outset were a political impossibility. The free-will enlist- 
ment plan had to be given a thorough test, and its inadequacy 
demonstrated and repeatedly emphasized before public opinion 
would support resort to compulsion. 

English-speaking Canada at least learned that lesson, and 
it is extremely doubtful whether the United States would 
have adopted the selective draft system at the commencement 
of its participation in the war, if it had not been that the experi- 
ence of Canada and the United Kingdom established the weak- 
ness inherent in the voluntary system. 

Besides the camp at Valcartier, a great artillery camp was 
set up at Petewawa, where the best facilities existed for long 
range gun practice. Ontario saw two camps at Niagara and 



304 OUR NEIGHBORING ALLY. 

Camp Borden ; Manitoba saw one on the plains, Alberta another 
in the picturesque district near Calgary, while British Columbia 
had its camp at Vernon. 

INADEQUATE RECRUITING. 

The volunteer recruiting in Canada, in its incipiency, while 
resultful, was soon found to be not adequate. Under it, how- 
ever, there was a widespread response that stirs the blood, for 
men hurried to the lines from the Yukon and the Peace Rivers ; 
from Hudson's Bay and the farther hinterlands, from prairie 
and mountain; white men and the red men; cowboys and city 
chaps, harvesters and hunters, mechanics and mountaineers, 
backwoodsmen and frontwoodsmen. And also among the en- 
listers were thousands of Americans who fought side by side 
with Canadian, Briton and Frenchman. 

Canada has large German settlements, including 300,000 
German and Austrian settlers in the western provinces. Prompt 
action was taken on the outbreak of the war to deal with the 
alien element that might prove dangerous and disloyal. Nearly 
10,000 were speedily interned, from Nova Scotia to British 
Columbia. A large proportion were Austrian laborers who 
had been railway navvies. These were placed in western camps 
and used in building trails and roads in national parks, or in 
clearing the forest for future settlement in Northern Ontario. 

Many individuals of known pro-German sympathies were 
also put out of harm's way, and some famous trials were held 
which served to give salutary warnings to all others that free- 
dom of speech has its limitations in times of war, and that the 
rumors that the sinking of the Lusitania was being celebrated 
behind closed doors was hardly palatable. 

Others, again, were caught in attempts to destroy prop- 
erty and it is to the credit of police and military vigilance that 
few succeeded in their nefarious designs. The internment 
camp proved a wholesome example, and the pro-German in 
Canada took the advice of the United States Government to its 



OUR NEIGHBORING ALLY. 305 

German subjects "to keep their mouths shut." It is also a fact 
that the occupants of the detention camps in the Dominion were 
well fed and treated, in striking contrast to the disturbing 
reports that leaked through as to the way Canadian war 
prisoners in Germany fared. 

CANADA'S WAR FINANCIERING. 

Next, the story of how Canada is financing her share of 
the war, for it is a costly business. Three domestic war loans, 
totaling $450,000,000, were voluntarily subscribed, each in fact 
being doubly underwritten, and yet the savings of the people in 
the banks is (1917) the highest on record — over a billion and a 
quarter. Part of the war revenue is being raised by war taxes 
on letters, checks, legal documents and some articles of import. 
Happily the normal revenue of the country was never so large 
nor the trade of the Dominion so buoyant. All these factors 
are helping to carry the war burden. 

The generosity of the people, under the heavy strain, was 
most marked. Many millions were given to the various war 
help funds, chiefly to the Red Cross and the Canadian Patriotic 
Fund, of 700 branches, which supplements the Government 
separation allowance to soldiers' dependents by other grants. 
Canada had, up to that time, by the way, the highest paid sol- 
diery in the world, privates getting $33 a month. 

It is interesting to note that there are several branches of 
the Canadian Patriotic Fund in the United States, which looked 
after the families and dependents of Americans who enlisted in 
the Canadian ranks. 

Canadian total givings in cash and kind to their own, as well 
as to the Belgians, French, Servian, Armenian and other funds 
and Governmental grants of grain and provision, would repre- 
sent a very much larger figure than that here mentioned. 

The orders placed in Canada averaged $1,500,000 worth 
for every day in the year. 

The women of Canada in every way render practical 

H E— 20 



306 OUR NEIGHBORING ALLY. 

patriotic service. Hundreds of nurses were placed in overseas 
and home hospitals. The farmers' wives raised large sums of 
money as did the school children. Organizations of all kinds 
came into existence, not alone collecting money, but contribut- 
ing vast quantities of war material and soldiers' comforts, and 
sending packages of food and clothing regularly to Canadian 
prisoners in German camps. 

Still another war problem was the care of the returned 
wounded soldiers, and a serious problem it was. The proces- 
sion of the disabled was a pathetic one. Military convalescent 
hospitals were set up in many centres, in addition to the open- 
ing of private homes for the same beneficent purpose. 

CANADA PART OF AMERICA. 

Canada may be an English possession, but to us it is part 
of America, and certainly no two countries have rested side by 
side in greater friendship than the "Dominion" and the United 
States. You can find no great fortifications along the 3000 
odd miles of border between Canada and the United States. 
The countries have lived in peace and harmony and together, or 
side by side they have battled for peace on the fields of 
Flanders. 

All the world knows what Canada has done on the battle- 
fields abroad, fighting with those troops from Australia, New 
Zealand, India and lesser English territory, to drive the ruth- 
less Germans back and crush the Empire to which they swear 
allegiance. 

The Canadian troops were taken after landing in France 
to a point within the country between St. Omer and Ypres, 
where they served with honor to themselves, their presence 
having a salutary effect on the British soldiery, who had been 
facing the German forces. At the battle of Neuve Chapelle 
the Canadians held part of the line allotted to the first army, 
and while not engaged in the main attack, rendered valuable 



OUR NEIGHBORING ALLY. 307 

help, their artillery being very active, and at the battle of Ypres 
in April, 1915, they took a notable part. 

In the latter part of April, the Canadian division held a 
line of about 5000 yards, connecting with that of the French 
troops, and faced the memorable gas attack of the Germans, 
which was the first noted in the war. The asphyxiating gas was 
projected into the trenches by means of force pumps and pipes 
laid under the parapets, the German sappers having carefully 
placed these conductors. The bulk of the gas was directed 
against the French, largely made up of Turcos and Zouaves, 
who were driven back, suffering agonies. 

POSITION BRAVELY HELD. 

The Canadians suffered to some extent from the poison, 
and though there were in the commands lawyers, college pro- 
fessors, business men, clerks and workers of a^l sorts, who had 
been turned into soldiers within a few months, and without pre- 
vious military experience, they held their position bravely. The 
Canadians were, of course, compelled to change their position 
after the French fell back, and the Allied troops were, to all 
effects and purposes, routed. But when the Germans, recog- 
nizing the weakened position of the Canadians, attempted to 
force a series of attacks, the Canadian division, as a matter of 
record, fought through the day and through the night, for 
forty-eight consecutive hours, and finally, in a counter attack, 
drove the Germans back and regained a position which had been 
lost by the British troops in the earlier conflict. 

Later, in the face of a devastating fire, in which many 
officers were killed, battalions of the Canadians carried warfare 
to the first line of German trenches, and in a desperate hand-to- 
hand struggle won the trench. This attack, it is said, secured 
and maintained during the most critical moment of the cam- 
paign the integrity of the Allied line. 

In connection with the experience of the Canadians with 
the gas fumes, it is necessary to note that at that time they were 



308 OUR NEIGHBORING ALLY. 

unprovided with gas masks, or means of protecting themselves 
against the fumes, and the best they could do was to stuff wet 
handkerchiefs in their mouths. The fumes, although extremely 
poisonous, were not so effective with the Canadians as on the 
French lines, largely because of the position of the Canadians, 
and the direction of the wind, but in the several attacks a num- 
ber of the Canadians were asphyxiated. 

HEROES WIN RECOGNITION. 

So, all through the Ypres campaign, the Canadians faced 
the shot, shell and poisonous gases of the Germans, and won 
recognition for their heroic conduct which will stand to the 
credit of Canada for all time. At Festubert, Givenchy, and, 
last but not least, Lens, the Canadians, step by step, kept pace 
with the Allied advances. 

In their general advance on Lens the Canadians occupied 
the strongest outpost in the defense of that place, and pushing 
their troops on toward La Coulotte, entered that village. The 
Germans withdrew in this neighborhood from a line about one 
and three-quarters miles long. 

The task of the Canadians was to capture German out- 
posts southwest of Reservoir Hill. The attack was evidently 
expected. The Germans scuttled, abandoning ground upon 
which machine gun fire was immediately turned by Germans 
located on the hill. This was speedily followed by heavy artil- 
lery fire, which continued during the night in the vicinity of the 
Lens electric station. 

The enemy's dugouts were searched, found to be empty, 
and wrecked. 

The German retirement ceased during the night. Patrols 
sent out opposite Mericourt and to the south found the enemy's 
front line strongly held. The Germans made huge craters at 
all cross roads in Avion and leading towards Lens. 

Patrols which were sent out reached the summit of Reser- 
voir Hill without opposition and pushed on down the eastern 



OUE NEIGHBORING ALLY. 309 

slope and the strong Lens outpost was effectively occupied. 
Meanwhile, south of the Souchez River the Canadians drove 
forward on the heels of the retiring Germans. Railway em- 
bankments east of Lens electric station were occupied. The 
advance was then continued toward La Coulotte. As night fell 
strong parties were sent out to consolidate the positions occu- 
pied, while patrols were sent forward to keep in touch with the 
Germans. 

WANTON DESTRUCTION.' 

Several days previous the Germans were known to be 
destroying houses in the western part of Lens, with the object 
of giving a wider area of fire for their guns. It was their inten- 
tion of clinging to the eastern side of the city and prolonging 
the struggle by house-to-house fighting. 

Under a protecting concentration of artillery fire, Cana- 
dian troops successfully stormed and captured the German 
front line before Avion, a suburb of Lens. By the advance the 
British line was carried forward to within one mile of the centre 
of Lens. 

The Canadians, heartened by successes gained in a few 
days at a relatively small cost, decided to attack across the open 
ground sloping upwards to Avion and the village of Leauvette, 
near the Souchez River. They met with opposition of a serious 
character at only one point, where a combination of machine 
gun fire and uncut wires delayed the advance. The attack was 
not intended to be pressed home at this particular spot, as the 
ground specially favored the Germans, so that the delay did no 
harm. The assaulting troops comprised men from British 
Columbia, Manitoba, Central Ontario and Nova Scotia. 

The attack was made along a two-mile front. On the 
extreme left, Nova Scotians pushed their way up the Lens- 
Arras road to the village of Leauvette. Here they took a num- 
ber of prisoners. At the other end of the line, east of the rail- 
way tracks, enemy dugouts were bombed. Their occupants 



310 OUR NEIGHBORING ALLY. 

belonged to the crack Prussian Guards Corps, the Fifth Guard 
Grenadiers, who refused in most cases to come out and sur- 
render. 

At daybreak, Canadian airplanes, flying low over Avion, 
saw few Germans there. Craters which had been made by mine 
exposions at the crossroads, seriously hindered them in bring- 
ing up troops from Lens for counter attacks. 
GERMAN AVIATIK DEFEATED. 

In an air duel fought at probably the highest altitude at 
which aviators, up until that time, had met in combat, nearly 
four miles, a Canadian triplane pursued and defeated a 
German two-seated Aviatik. The German machine had sought 
safety by climbing upward and the triplane pursued. At a 
height of 20,000 feet the pilot of the German craft either fell 
or jumped from it and disappeared at the moment of the first 
burst of fire from the gun on the Canadian. The German 
observer then was seen to climb out upon the tail of the machine, 
where he lost his hold and plunged headlong. The Aviatik 
turned its nose down and fell. 

It is meet that some note be taken of the fact that while 
the Canadian soldiers were battling for humanity and the 
preservation of the British Empire in Flanders there was 
being celebrated in their native land the fiftieth anniversary of 
the founding of the Dominion. All Canada took part in the 
celebration on June 1, 1917, as did large numbers of men from 
the United States officers' training camp at Niagara, where 
recruits were preparing to receive Commissions in Uncle Sam's 
Army. 

Up until 1867 Canada had been the scene of bitter strife 
between the French and British. At that time the provinces 
were brought quite closely together, and commenced a new era 
of prosperity. The foundation was then laid for a wonderfully 
prosperous country, one filled with almost limitless possibilities. 

The confederation of Canada had its birth in a meeting of 



OUR NEIGHBORING ALLY. 311 

delegates from all over British North America, which was held 
in 1864, and these delegates, after deliberating for nearly three 
weeks, passed a large number of resolutions which formed the 
basis of what eventually became the Act of Union. In the fol- 
lowig January these resolutions were submitted to the Legis- 
lature of Canada and after due debate there was passed in both 
chambers of Parliament a measure for the purpose of uniting 
the provinces in accordance with the provisions of the Quebec 
resolutions. The meeting was in Quebec. 

PLAN OF UNION PASSED. 

A number of difficulties were encountered, so that it was 
1867 before the plan of union was submitted to the Imperial 
Parliament, where it was warmly received and passed without 
alteration of any description within a few days. The royal 
assent was given on March 29, and the act constituting the new 
Canada went into effect on July 1, which day has since become 
known as Dominion Day, and is the chief of all Canadian holi- 
days. 

The federal Constitution of Canada is contained in an 
Imperial Act of Parliament, known as the British North 
America Act, and it is based very largely upon that of the 
mother country. The ministry of the day holds office at the 
pleasure of the House of Commons, the members of which are 
elected by the people. At the head of the affairs is a Governor- 
General, who is appointed by the crown and paid by the people 
of Canada. As is the case with the British sovereigns, he acts 
with and on the advice of the ministers for the time being, and 
also like the King, he can dissolve the Parliament. 

The number of members of the House of Commons is 
regulated by the following clauses of the act: "On the comple- 
tion of the census in the year 1871, and of each subsequent 
decennial census, the representation of the four provinces shall 
be readjusted by such authority in such a manner, and from 



312 OUR NEIGHBORING ALLY. 

such time as the Parliament of Canada from time to time pro- 
vides. 

Previous to the passing of the British North America Act, 
the great Dominion had consisted of a conglomeration of 
provinces, some of them of almost fabulous extent, into which 
the white man from the West had penetrated. Tradition has 
it that some thousand years ago a Norseman, by name Leif 
Ericson, coming in his great beaked galley, through the 
northern seas, from Greenland, was the first white man to 
stand on Canadian soil. 

Another five centuries were, however, to pass before John 
Cabot, sailing from Bristol, in the days of Henry Bolingbroke, 
brought the first British ship into a Canadian port. After him 
the fishermen of Europe came in increasing numbers to the 
great banks, with the result that little by little, as their tiny 
vessels touched the American shores, the great continent began 
to be known to the people of Europe. 

DOMINION'S FOUNDATIONS LAID. 

It was not really, however, until the year 1534 that the 
foundations of the Dominion may be said to have been sunk. 
In that year Jacques Cartier sailed from the port of St. Malo, 
with two little ships, intending to attempt the northwest 
passage to Japan. Francis the First was then ruling in Paris, 
and there was great adventure in the air of France. Cartier 
did not make the northwest passage, but he did touch the coast 
of Canada, or, to be more exact, the coasts of Labrador and 
Newfoundland. It was then the 10th of May, and having 
sailed around the island, he steered south, and crossing the gulf 
entered the bay which, by reason of the great heats of midsum- 
mer, he named Des Chaleurs. Holding along the coast, he 
came to the little inlet of Gaspe, and here, at the entrance to 
the harbor, he erected a huge cross surmounted by the arms and 
lilies of France. He could find no passage, however, to the 



OUR NEIGHBORING ALLY. 313 

northwest, and so he turned his ship, and sailed back to St. 
Malo. 

The Court in Paris heard his story with interest. His 
cause was taken up by the King; and, as a result, in the suc- 
ceeding May, he sailed again to the new world with three well 
found ships. On the day of Saint Lawrence he entered the 
great bay, to which he at once gave the name of the Saint, and 
passing on came, in September, to anchor in the Isle of Orleans. 

REAL FOUNDER OF CANADA. 

The man, however, with whose name the early history of 
Canada is most fully connected, had not as yet been born. Nor 
was it until the year 1567 that, at Brouage in Saintonge, 
Samuel de Champlain came upon the scene. In the year 1603, 
when Elizabeth was ruling in England, and Henry of Navarre 
in France, Champlain came to Canada. He had been a soldier 
of le Bearnais, in the great wars with the League, an officer of 
marine, and a man with no little knowledge of natural science, 
as knowledge was then accounted. He came now in command 
of an expedition, fitted out by the merchants of Rouen, with 
the idea of forming a Canada company, as England had her 
Barbary Company, her Eastland Company, her Muscovie 
Company, or her Turkey Company. And in this way the 
French came into Canada. 

Thus there began those American wars between the two 
countries, divided at home only by the English Channel, which 
went on century by century, largely through the employment 
of the Indian tribes, until that September night when Wolfe's 
boats drifted in, from the fleet to the shore, and the battle on 
the Plains of Abraham permanently settled the question of 
domination in favor of the British. 

The British conquest of Canada did not, however, mean the 
cessation of fighting. There came, presently, the war between 
Great Britain and the American colonies, one of the most amaz- 
ing exploits of which was the marvelous march of Arnold and 



314 OUR NEIGHBORING ALLY. 

Montgomery through the forests of Maine to the St. Law- 
rence, ending in the wonderful siege, of the year 1775, and the 
heroic failure to storm the defenses by scaling the rocks from 
the river bed. Eventually the boundary between the United 
States and the British possessions was settled by the Treaty of 
Paris, in 1783, just twenty years after an earlier Treaty of 
Paris had recorded the surrender of Canada by France to Great 
Britain. 

CANADA, FROM COLONY TO DOMINION. 

For the last century and a half the story of Canada has been 
the story first of a British colony and then of a British 
Dominion. A great flood of new colonists had come into the 
country after the victory of the States in the War of Independ- 
ence, when many of the royalists of New England crossed the 
border. As a result, there had grown up the two new provinces 
of Upper Canada, now known as Ontario, and New Bruns- 
wick. The relations between all the provinces were, however, 
far from harmonious, with the result that what between quar- 
rels among themselves and risings against the British author- 
ity, the condition of Canada was anything but promising, when, 
after the Rebellion of 1837, Lord Durham was sent over to try 
to evolve order out of chaos. 

He found the "habitant" still unreconciled to the British 
rule; he found a condition of many little Pontiacs, all very 
much as was that famous village on the summer evening when 
Valmond threw the hot pennies to the children, as the auctioneer 
and monsieur le cure came down the street; he found another 
Canada of British colonists with so little sympathy for the 
habitant, that, he declared, the two never met save in the jury 
box, and there only to obstruct justice. 

It was then that Lord Durham, by a great stroke of states- 
manship, brought peace to Canada. A democratic form of 
representative government was bestowed on the people. The 
division of Quebec into two provinces, which the habitant had 



OUR NEIGHBORING ALLY, 315 

desired when they were one, and resented when they were two, 
was annulled, with the result that the ground was prepared for 
the union which was to come just thirty years later. 

Lord Durham made history and made a nation, for the 
confederation, when it came, was the inevitable superstructure 
built upon the foundations of his laying, but he ruined a repu- 
tation. His contempt for the conventions of politics, the radi- 
calism of his methods, his failure to make any obeisance to the 
governmental deities, official or ex-official, combined with his 
almost superhuman tactlessness, gave his enemies every oppor- 
tunity they could desire. 

He was viciously attacked, and finally throwing up his 
mission, returned to England and gave up politics. 

REPORT NOT TO BE DISPOSED OF. 

The good, however, men do lives after them. Lord Dur- 
ham's report, drafted for him by two master hands, those of 
Charles Buller and Edward Wakefield, could not be disposed 
of by perfervid orators or ill-informed editors. It passes into 
the category of historic and illuminating state papers. And, 
though Lord Durham fell, when, on the first of July, 1867, the 
British Nbrth America Act became operative, it was the handle 
of his trowel that struck that great cornerstone of liberty and 
empire, and declared it well and truly laid: the first of the 
Dominions, now having a population of approximately 
8,000,000. 

Thrown upon their own resources, when Great Britain 
began to draw in its loans of 1911-12, the people of Canada 
were temporarily at a loss as to how to meet the situation; the 
hardships which followed, however, prepared them to meet, 
with resolute determination, the greater problems that crowded 
upon them in 1915-16. Canada, through all the past, had been 
a dependent and a debtor nation; the war made it self-reliant, 
spurred its people on to the development of natural resources, 
and assured them, not only that the Dominion could stand 



316 OUR NEIGHBORING ALLY. 

alone, but that, throughout all the future, it can be a pillar of 
strength to the Empire and to democracy. 

There were times when she was threatened by more than 
the ordinary difficulties which come to a nation, as when it 
became necessary in 1917 to pass a Conscription Act, the Pro- 
vince of Quebec threatened to secede. Quebec is a French ter- 
ritory, and it was a matter of world-wide comment that the 
volunteer enlistments for the Canadian army from the province 
were insignificant. 

While the French Canadians were proud of France and 
their cousins across the seas, they were opposed to being com- 
pelled to fight for England, and the proposal to secede was 
largely advocated by the French- Canadian clergy. 
RECIPIENTS OF UNSTINTED HONORS. 

Among the heroic troops that faced the Germans in 
Flanders none was more honored in all Canada and England 
than the Princess Patricia's Light Infantry. Out of this bat- 
talion, which sailed away from Canada's shores with the first 
expeditionary force, scarcely one-fourth of the proud number 
lived through the terrible campaigns of Flanders, in which the 
Dominion forces participated. 

The battalion constituted what was regarded as one of the 
most efficient military units in Canada, and in August, 1914, 
had been presented with colors wrought by the hand of Princess 
Patricia, daughter of the Governor General of Canada, the 
Duke of Connaught. The Princess, standing beside her 
mother, the Duchess of Connaught, in Lansdowne Park, 
Ottawa, presented the colors to the little force, wishing them a 
safe return, while thousands applauded and the spirit of patri- 
otism ran high. 

The "Princess Pats," as they came to be known, had with- 
in the organization a large portion of men of military experi- 
ence who had seen service in South Africa and elsewhere, and 
consequently when they landed in France they were the first to 



OUR NEIGHBORING ALLY. 317 

be sent into the trenches and to action. In the winter and 
spring of 1914-15 they had some bitter experiences and parti- 
cipated in several desperate attacks and defenses, but it was 
not until the campaign at Ypres that the organization was 
almost annihilated, when it faced one of the most terrific bom- 
bardments of the war, and fought in a section largely cut off 
from the main line. Here Lieutenant- Colonel Farquhar, com- 
mander of the battalion, lost his life and nearly all of the officers 
were wounded. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

THE HEEOIC ANZAC. 

Forces that Stirred the World in the Gallipoli Campaigns — Famous as Sap- 
pers — The Blasting of Messines Bidge — Two Years Tunneling — 30,000 
Germans Blown to Atoms — 1,000,000 Pounds of Explosives Used — Troops 
that were than sported 11,000 mlles. 

WHEN" the final history of the war is written, and the 
years have passed into ages, the story of the Anzac will 
form a brilliant passage in the book of nations. The 
Anzac in the campaigns at Gallipoli, the Dardanelles, and in 
Flanders served England with a loyalty and heroism not excel- 
led by any other force. And what were the Anzacs? They 
were the soldiers of Australia and New Zealand. Let A repre- 
sent Australia, INT. Z., New Zealand, and A. C, army corps, 
and you have the basis of the word Anzac. 

Generally in the news dispatches, the Anzacs have been 
referred to as Australians. They are described as fearless, dar- 
ing and fierce fighters, whose presence added pep to every 
engagement in which they participated. ~No more picturesque 
group has ever been written into the history of armies. Com- 
posed of men who were bushrangers, cattlemen, miners and 
hardy outdoor workers, many of whom served in Egypt, India 
and wherever the British flag floats, their character is indicated 
by the fact that they have been at times called the "Ragtime 
Army." 

The description of the landing of these troops at the Dar- 
danelles, where in a rain of artillery fire, they dashed into the 
Turkish trenches, is one of the most thrilling of the war. With 
the shells from the ships falling upon the Turkish forces the 
Anzacs chased the Turks step by step inland, engaging in the 
most desperate hand-to-hand encounters. 

Perhaps the story of that first battle might have been dif- 
ferent had not Turkish reinforcements appeared upon the 

318 



THE HEKOIC ANZAC. 319 

scene. As it was the British men of Anzac were temporarily 
driven back, retiring with terrible loss. For hours the Austra- 
lians engaged in solid fighting through a broken and hilly 
country, digging at night to establish entrenchments, with a 
renewal of the defense at daybreak, and then repeating the 
program. This is what the Australians and New Zealanders 
did, living upon short rations the while. 

In all of the campaigns in which the Angacs have parti- 
cipated their work as sappers has been a feature. Sappers, by 
the way, are those men who, in modern warfare, burrow in the 
earth, planting mines, digging trenches, dugouts and fortifica- 
tions. The Australians are fitted for this work for a large per- 
centage of them had civil experience in the mines, and on 
extensive contract and excavation work. 

AUSTRALIAN AND NEW ZEALAND SAPPERS. 

Probably one of the most effective attacks of the English 
against a German stronghold in Belgium was made possible 
through the work of the Australian and New Zealand sappers. 
That was the blowing up of the Messines Ridge in June, 1917. 
In this action the Anzac shone in a manner that can never be 
forgotten. 

On June 7, 1917, the British, with one terrible stroke, tore 
asunder the strong German position south of Ypres. This 
stroke was in a little corner of Belgium, where the armies of the 
Allies had successfully outgeneralled the enemy for two and a 
half years. 

During almost two years of this time several companies 
of Australian, New Zealand and British sappers were busily 
but silently engaged in mining the hills of the Messines- 
Wytschaete Ridge, on which were the guns of the Germans 
which had been raking the troops of the Allies all this time. 
Nineteen great mines which contained a total of 1,000,000 
pounds of ammonite upon their completion, had been dug into 
the vitals of these hills. Great charges of this new and power- 



320 THE HEROIC ANZAC. 

ful explosive had been placed in the mines nearly one year 
before their completion, yet no one except those actually 
engaged in the work knew of it. The secret was kept and the 
troops of Australia and New Zealand worked directly beneath 
the great German fortifications. 

Then came the crucial moment. At exactly 3.10 o'clock 
in the morning of June 7, the whole series of mines were dis- 
charged by electrical contact, and the hilltops were blown high 
in the air in one terrific burst of flame, which poured forth as 
from craters of volcanoes. The ground for miles around was 
rocked as in an earthquake, and the roar emitted was distinctly 
heard in England by Lloyd George, the Prime Minister, listen- 
ing for it at his country home 140 miles away. 

A PRE-ARRANGED SIGNAL. 

The explosion of the mines was a pre-arranged signal for 
the beginning of a heavy shell fire by the artillery. The whole 
section affected by the mines was subjected to a most intense 
shellfire, and following up this death-dealing storm came the 
troops of General Haig, under Sir Herbert Plumer, who fin- 
ished the work of the great mines and big guns with a brilliant 
charge of men, who used rifle and bayonet most effectively. 
Within a few hours the whole of the Messines Ridge was 
securely in the hands of the British, and they had captured 7000 
prisoners and many guns. The German casualties were esti- 
mated at 30,000, those of the British being about 10,000. 

Rushing the whole sector south of Ypres, from Observa- 
tion Ridge to Ploegsteert Wood, north of Armentieres, the 
British forces succeeded in capturing that position with little 
loss. Then came the assault of the rear defenses, which were 
formed by the ridge itself. The natural formation of the land 
greatly helped the Germans in arranging their defenses, and the 
fighting was very fierce. The work of British troops, in which 
were many Australians and New Zealanders, together with 
English and Irish, all under the command of General Sir 



THE HEROIC ANZAC. 321 

Herbert CO. Plumer, was given great credit in the reports of 
the commander to the War Office. 

The British War Office summarized the attack as follows 
in its report of June 8 : 

"The position captured by us yesterday was one of the 
enemy's most important strongholds on the western front. 
Dominating as it did the Ypres salient and giving the enemy 
complete observation over it, he neglected no precautions to 
render the position impregnable. These conditions enabled the 
enemy to overlook all our preparations for attack, and he had 
moved up reinforcements to meet us. The battle, therefore, 
became a gauge of the ability of the German troops to stop our 
advance under conditions as favorable to them as an army can 
ever hope for, with every advantage of ground and preparation 
and with the knowledge that an attack was impending. 

GERMAN FORWARD DEFENSE. 

"The German forward defenses consisted of an elaborate 
and intricate system of well-wired trenches and strong points 
forming a defensive belt over a mile in depth. Numerous 
farms and woods were thoroughly prepared for the defense, 
and there were large numbers of machine guns in the German 
garrisons. Guns of all calibers, recently increased in numbers, 
were placed to bear not only on the front but on the flanks of an 
attack. Numerous communicating trenches and switch lines, 
radiating in all directions, were amply provided with strongly 
constructed concrete dugouts and machine-gun emplacements 
designed to protect the enemy garrison and machine gunners 
from the effect of our bombardment. In short, no precaution 
was omitted that could be provided by the incessant labor of 
years, guided by the experience gained by the enemy in his 
previous defeats on the Somme, at Arras, and on Vimy Ridge. 

"Despite the difficulties and disadvantages which our 

troops had to overcome, further details of yesterday's fighting 

show that our first assault and the subsequent attacks were car- 
It R— 21 



322 THE HEROIC ANZAC. 

ried out in almost exact accordance with the timetable pre- 
viously arranged. * * * 

"Following on the great care and thoroughness in prepara- 
tions made under the orders of General Sir Herbert Plumer, 
the complete success gained may be ascribed chiefly to the 
destruction caused by our mines, to the violence and accuracy 
of our bombardment, to the very fine work of the Royal Flying 
Corps, and to the incomparable dash and courage of the infan- 
try. The whole force acted in perfect combination. Excellent 
work was done by the tanks, and every means of offense at our 
disposal was made use of, so that every arm of the service had a 
share in the victory." 

A good description of the Australian soldier, as he follows 
up his victory, was given in a story of an American war corre- 
spondent, who wrote concerning Flanders : 

NEW LAND OF WARFARE. 

"After these many months of trench warfare there is keen 
delight for the Australian soldier in this new land of warfare 
which the German retirement has opened up. The fighting is 
in open country now, over gently rolling downs of what looks 
like grass land. It is really most of it wheat or turnip land 
which has not been cultivated for a year or two. The country is 
as open as the Australian central plains. 

"It is quite a new sort of battlefield for the Australians. 
They march down to it through valleys almost exactly like the 
valleys in the peaceful parts of France. There are whole acres 
in which one cannot see a single shell hoje. Back across the 
green country or down the open roads come men in twos or 
threes occasionally, sauntering as one might find them on a 
country road. They are the wounded helping one another 
back to the dressing station. The walking wounded have to 
help each other back in these modern battles. It is no longer 
looked upon as meritorious for an unwounded combatant to 
leave the field and help a wounded comrade to the rear. 



THE HEROIC ANZAC. 323 

"Nearest the front the country becomes more feverish. 
Angry bursts of tawny color are seen in a haphazard sort of 
way dotting the horizon and the countryside. Here and there 
are Australians standing behind mounds of earth with their 
rifles pointed over the top, bayonets always fixed. Frequently, 
when there is no other shelter there are hastily scooped trenches. 
A quarter of a mile away another party is lining a roadside, flat 
on their stomachs in the ditch, bayonets peeping over the top. 
Shells are whizzing by at the rate of two or three a minute, high 
explosives bursting on contact behind their backs about as far 
away as the other side of a cottage parlor. 

PRISONER AND ESCORT. 

"Frequently one meets a prisoner being escorted to the 
rear. There is something very impressive about these little pro-i 
cessions of two men, prisoner and escort. The prisoner, usually 
a young German private in neat gray uniform and steel helmet, 
walks in front. After him, grasping his rifle with both hands 
across his chest, his weatherbeaten brows puckered as he picks 
his way over the tumbled stones, comes the living embodiment 
of the Australian back country. Nine cases out of ten, some- 
how, the soldier who escorts a prisoner seems to be that bit of 
pure Australian, either Western Australia or South Australia, 
the Warrego or the Burdskin. 

"He is an earnest man, intent on executing his errand with 
dispatch and exactitude. 'Can you tell me the way to head- 
quarters?' he asks as he passes. Then he disappears slowly up 
the street on the heels of his silent companion. 

"These Australians are just as good fighters in this new 
warfare as they were at Gallipoli or in the trenches, perhaps 
even better. They had their first encounter with German 
cavalry the other day, but it was only a feint at a flank and 
lasted but a few minutes." 

"Australia is ambitious, some might even say self-centered, 
and Germany undoubtedly made the mistake of considering 



324 THE HEUOIC ANZAC. 

that Australia was awaiting a chance to become unfriendly to 
Great Britain when she started to fight. But no nation ever 
made a greater mistake. As soon as the House of Hohenzol- 
lern placed the mother country in a perilous position Australia 
was at the command of Great Britain. Notwithstanding the 
fact that the Australians are primarily peace-loving, most in- 
tent on attending to their own affairs, the response to the call 
was immediate and whole-hearted. 

AUSTRALIA'S COMMENDABLE PROMPTNESS. 

The Australian centers buzzed with activity, and within 
two months after war was declared the Australian fleet, which 
consisted of five unarmored cruisers, three torpedo-boat 
destroyers, and three light gunboats, which had been built and 
manned at the expense of the Australians, were in possession of 
the German Pacific Islands — Samoa, Marshall, Carolines 
Pelew, Ladrones, New Guinea, New Britain — had broken the 
wireless system of the Germans, and had captured eleven of the 
vessels of Germany. She also forced twenty-five other ships 
to intern, and prevented the destruction of a British ship in 
Australian waters. 

Then came the scouring of the seas by the German ship 
Emden, and her trip to Australian waters, with the object of 
carrying on the work of destruction which had marked her 
career in South American waters. She lay in wait for Aus- 
tralian transports, with the result that the Australian warship 
Sydney sent her to the bottom but three months after war had 
been declared. Shortly after this the Australian fleet drove 
von Spree's squadron from the Pacific directly into the trap set 
by Admiral Sturdee at the Falkland Islands. 

The fact that all the troops of Australia must be trans- 
ported to London — a distance via the Suez route of approxi- 
mately 11,000 miles, and through the Panama Canal of 12,734 
miles — did not keep back these brave men from quickly enlist- 
ing. The great distance made fighting extremely expensive. 



THE HEROIC ANZAC. 325 

but the task was loyally assumed by the military of the far con- 
tinent. Universal military service was inaugurated for the first 
time by an English-speaking community, and war loans were 
offered and quickly accepted. Transports were immediately 
constructed out of seventy steamers which were requisitioned. 
At the declaration of war in November, 1914, the entire 
Australian army, which consisted of 20,000 men, left Australia 
for Egypt, and at the end of the first year of the conflict there 
were 76,000 men in the field. By July, 1916, nearly 300,000 
volunteers had been recruited and had crossed the seas. The 
creation, equipment, and supplying of this army by the people 
of Australia, a task involving enormous cost and personal sac- 
rifice, constitutes a thrilling chapter in the history of loyahy. 

GEOGRAPHICALLY ALIKE. 

To those who think that Australia is a little island situated 
in the Pacific ocean it might be interesting to know that this 
continent, in size and shape, is almost the exact duplicate of the 
United States. There are also outlying provinces, that of 
Papua, a tropical land, offsetting Alaska. Then there is the 
rich little Lord Howe Island, and Norfolk Island. The sur- 
face of Australia is the most level in surface and regular in 
outline of all the continents, and is the lowest continent, with 
an average elevation of Ohio. 

There are 2,974,581 square miles in Australia, while the 
land area of the United States is 2,973,890 square miles, a dif- 
ference of 691 square miles. This, of course, is only the con- 
tinental United States. Only about one-twentieth of the total 
area of Australia lies in a latitude farther removed from the 
Equator than Chattanooga, Tennessee ; Clarendon, Texas ; and 
Albuquerque, New Mexico, and there is less than one-third of 
the area of this unique continent which lies in a cooler latitude 
than the sugar-cane lands of Louisiana. 

The streams of Australia are fewer and carry less water 
than those of any other continent. The heart of this great 



326 THE HEROIC ANZAC. 

island is dry and barren and thinly populated. Most of the 
inhabitants are found within easy reach of the coastline. The 
population of this great land, at the census of 1911, was 4,568,- 
707 persons. 

New Zealand is situated a little more than 1200 miles to 
the east of Sydney, which is in the southeastern section of 
Australia. It consists of three fairly large islands, together 
with a number of small adjacent islands. The area is 105,340 
square miles, the population being, in 1911, 815,862. The 
surface of the principal islands is diversified, being mountainous 
in some parts, and undulating in others. The best harbors 
are in the northern district. 



CHAPTER XX 

AMEEICA STEPS IN. 

Pbesident Wilson's Famous Message to Congbess — The Wab Kesolution — 
Apbil 6, 1917 Sees the United States at Wab — Review of the Negotia- 
tions Between Gebmany and Amebica — The U-Boat Eestbicted Zone An- 
nouncement of Gebmany — Pbemiee Lloyd Geobge on Amebica in the Con- 
flict. 

THE hoisting of the American flag to the top of the staff 
as the emblem of world-wide Liberty followed the action 
of Congress in authorizing President Wilson to declare a 
state of war existed between Germany and the United States. 
What the conditions were which developed during the months 
in which Germany to all intents and purposes "laughed up her 
sleeve" at the United States, ignored our protests against her 
wanton disregard of human rights on land and sea, can no bet- 
ter be told than in the words of President Wilson himself in 
his message stating the position which the Government took. 

His message to Congress will go down in history, not only 
as an instrument of world-wide importance, but as a classic in 
literature. Its effect on the Nations was greater than that of 
any other message issued by any one country, probably in the 
history of the world, and while there were critics who regarded 
some of President Wilson's utterances as too idealistic, time 
proved that his vision was greater than that of those who criti- 
cised him, and within a short time the eyes of the entire world 
were turned toward Washington, which became the active 
centre from which the campaign for world-wide democracy was 
waged. 

The hands of Liberty stretched out to Russia, Serbia, 
Italy, France, Belgium, England, little Montenegro, and they 
were given help in the most critical periods of their careers. 
The President's message was presented to Congress on April 
3, 1917, as follows: 

"I have called the Congress into extraordinary session be- 

327 



328 AMERICA STEPS IN. 

cause there are serious, very serious, choices of policy to be 
made, and made immediately, which it was neither right nor 
constitutionally permissible that I should assume the responsi- 
bility of making. 

"On the third of February last I officially laid before you 
the extraordinary announcement of the Imperial German Gov- 
ernment that on and after the first day of February it was its 
purpose to put aside all restraints of law or of humanity and 
use its submarines to sink every vessel that sought to approach 
either the ports of Great Britain and Ireland or the western 
coasts of Europe or any of the ports controlled by the enemies 
of Germany within the Mediterranean. 

COMMANDERS UNDER RESTRAINT. 

"That had seemed to be the object of the German sub- 
marine warfare earlier in the war, but since April of last year 
the Imperial Government had somewhat restrained the com- 
manders of its undersea craft in conformity with its promise 
then given to us that passenger boats should not be sunk and 
that due warning would be given to all other vessels which its 
submarines might seek to destroy when no resistance was of- 
fered or escape attempted, and care taken that their crews were 
given at least a fair chance to save their lives in their open boats. 

"The precautions taken were meager and haphazard 
enough, as was proved in distressing instance after instance in 
the progress of the cruel and unmanly business ; but a certain 
degree of restraint was observed. 

"The new policy has swept every restriction aside. Vessels 
of every kind, whatever their flag, their character, their cargo, 
their destination, their errand, have been ruthlessly sent to the 
bottom without warning and without thought of help or mercy 
for those on board, the vessels of friendly neutrals along with 
those of belligerents. 

"Even hospital ships and ships carrying relief to the sorely 
bereaved and stricken people of Belgium, though the lattey 



AMERICA STEPS IN. 329 

were provided with safe-conduct through the prescribed areas 
by the German Government itself and were distinguished by 
unmistakable marks of identity, have been sunk with the same 
reckless lack of compassion or of principle. 

"I was for a little while unable to believe that such things 
would in fact be done by any government that had hitherto 
subscribed to the humane practices of civilized nations. Inter- 
national law had its origin in the attempt to set up some law 
which would be respected and observed upon the seas, where 
no nation had the right of domination and where lay the free 
highways of the world. 

"By painful stage after stage has that law been built up, 
with meager enough results, indeed, after all was accomplished 
that could be accomplished, but always with a clear view, at 
least, of what the heart and conscience of mankind demanded. 

SWEEPS RIGHT ASIDE. 

"This minimum of right the German Government has 
swept aside under the plea of retaliation and necessity and be- 
cause it had no weapons which it could use at sea except those 
which it is impossible to employ as it is employing them with- 
out throwing to the winds all scruples of humanity or of respect 
for the understandings that were supposed to underlie the in- 
tercourse of the world. 

"I am not now thinking of the loss of property involved, 
immense and serious as this is, but only of the wanton and 
wholesale destruction of the lives of noncombatants, men, 
women and children, engaged in pursuits which have always, 
even in the darkest periods of modern history, been deemed 
innocent and legitimate. Property can be paid for; the lives 
of peaceful and innocent people cannot be. 

"The present German submarine warfare against com- 
merce is a warfare against mankind. It is a war against all 
nations. American ships have been sunk, American lives taken, 
in ways which it has stirred us very deeply to learn of, but the 



330 AMERICA STEPS IN. 

ships and people of other neutral and friendly nations have 
been sunk and overwhelmed in the waters in the same way. 
There has been no discrimination. The challenge is to all man- 
kind. Each nation must decide for itself how it will meet it. 

"The choice we make for ourselves must be made with a 
moderation of counsel and a temperateness of judgment be- 
fitting our character and our motives as a nation. We must 
put excited feeling away. Our motive will not be revenge or 
the victorious assertion of the physical might of the nation, but 
only the vindication of human right, of which we are only a 
single champion. 

ARMED NEUTRALITY IMPRACTICABLE. 

"When I addressed the Congress on the twenty-sixth of 
February last I thought it would suffice to assert our neutral 
rights with arms, our right to use the seas against unlawful 
interference, our right to keep our people safe against unlaw- 
ful violence. But armed neutrality, it now appears, is imprac- 
ticable. 

"Because submarines are in effect outlaws when used as 
the German submarines have been used against merchant ship- 
ping, it is impossible to defend ships against their attacks as 
the law of nations has assumed that merchantmen would defend 
themselves against privateers or cruisers, visible craft giving 
chase upon the open sea. It is common prudence in such cir- 
cumstances, grim necessity, indeed, to endeavor to destroy them 
before they have shown their own intention. They must be 
dealt with upon sight, if dealt with at all. 

"The German Government denies the right of neutrals 
to use arms at all within the areas of the sea which it has pro- 
scribed, even in the defense of rights which no modern publicist 
has ever questioned their right to defend. The intimation is 
conveyed that the armed guards which we have placed on our 
merchant ships will be treated as beyond the pale of law and 
subject to be dealt with as pirates would be. 



AMERICA STEPS IN. 331 

"Armed neutrality is ineffectual enough at best; in such 
circumstances and in the face of such pretensions it is worse 
than ineffectual ; it is likely once to produce what it was meant 
to prevent ; it is virtually certain to draw us into the war with- 
out either the rights or the effectiveness of belligerents. 

"There is one choice we cannot make, we are incapable 
of making ; we will not choose the path of submission and suffer 
the most sacred rights of our nation and our people to be 
ignored or violated. The wrongs against which we now array 
ourselves are not common wrongs; they cut to the very roots 
of human life. 

A CONSTITUTIONAL DUTY. 

"With a profound sense of the solemn and even tragical 
character of the step I am taking and of the grave responsi- 
bilities which it involves, but in unhesitating obedience to what 
I deem my constitutional duty, I advise that the Congress 
declare the recent course of the Imperial German Government 
to be in fact nothing less than war against the Government and 
people of the United States ; that it formally accept the status 
of belligerent which has thus been thrust upon it and that it 
take immediate steps not only to put the country in a more 
thorough state of defense, but also to exert all its power and 
employ all its resources to bring the Government of the Ger- 
man Empire to terms and end the war. 

"What this will involve is clear. It will involve the utmost 
practicable co-operation in counsel and action with the Govern- 
ments now at war with Germany, and as incident to that, the 
extension to those Governments of the most liberal financial 
credits, in order that our resources may, so far as possible, be 
added to theirs. It will involve the organization and mobiliza- 
tion of all the material resources of the country to supply the 
material of war and serve the incidental needs of the nation in 
the most abundant and yet the most economical and efficient 
way possible. 



332 AMERICA STEPS IN. 

"It will involve the immediate full equipment of the navy 
in all respects, but particularly in supplying it with the best 
means of dealing with the enemy's submarines. It will involve 
the immediate addition to the armed forces of the United States 
already provided for by law in case of war at least 500,000 
men, who should, in my opinion, be chosen upon the principle 
of universal liability to service, and also the authorization of 
subsequent additional increments of equal force so soon as they 
may be needed and can be handled in training. 
WELL-CONCEIVED TAXATION. 

"It will involve, also, of course, the granting of adequate 
credits to the Government, sustained, I hope, so far as they can 
equitably be sustained by the present generation, by well-con- 
ceived taxation. I say sustained so far as may be equitably 
by taxation because it seems to me that it would be most unwise 
to base the credits which will now be necessary entirely on 
money borrowed. It is our dut}% I most respectfully urge, to 
protect our people so far as we may against the very serious 
hardships and evils which would be likely to arise out of the 
inflation which would be produced by vast loans. 

"In carrying out the measures by which these things are 
to be accomplished we should keep constantly in mind the wis- 
dom of interfering as little as possible in our own preparation 
and in the equipment of our own military forces with the duty 
— for it will be a very practical duty — of supplying the nations 
already at war with Germany with the materials which they 
can obtain only from us by our assistance. They are in the 
field and we should help them in every way to be effective there. 

"I shall take the liberty of suggesting, through the several 
executive departments of the Government, for the considera- 
tion of your committees measures for the accomplishment of the 
several objects I have mentioned. I hope that it will be your 
pleasure to deal with them as having been framed after very 
careful thought by the branch of the Government upon which 



AMERICA STEPS IN. 333 

the responsibility of conducting the war and safeguarding the 
nation will most directly fall. 

"While we do these things — these deeply momentous 
things — let us be very clear, and make veiy clear to all the 
world, what our motives and our objects are. My own thought 
has not been driven from its habitual and normal course by the 
unhappy events of the last two months, and I do not believe 
that the thought of the nation has been altered or clouded by 
them. 

FIRM STAND FOR VINDICATION. 

"I have exactly the same things in mind now that I had in 
mind when I addressed the Senate on the twenty-second of 
January last; the same that I had in mind when I addressed 
the Congress on the third of February and on the twenty-sixth 
of February. Our object now, as then, is to vindicate the 
principles of peace and justice in the life of the world against 
selfish and autocratic power and to set up among the really 
free and self-governed peoples of the world such a concert of 
purpose and action as will henceforth insure the observance of 
those principles. 

"Neutrality is no longer feasible or desirable where the 
peace of the world is involved and the freedom of its peoples 
and the menace to that peace and freedom lies in the existence 
of autocratic governments backed by organized force which is 
controlled wholly by their will, not by the will of their people. 
We have seen the last of neutrality in such circumstances. 

"We are at the beginning of an age in which it will be 
insisted that the same standards of conduct and of responsi- 
bility for wrongdoing shall be observed among nations and 
their Governments that are observed among the individual 
citizens of civilized States. 

"We have no quarrel with the German people. We have 
no feeling toward them but one of sympathy and friendship. 
It was not upon their impulse that their Government acted in 



334 AMERICA STEPS IN. 

entering this war. It was not with their previous knowledge 
or approval. 

"It was a war determined upon as wars used to be deter- 
mined upon in the old, unhappy days when peoples were no- 
where consulted by their rulers and wars were provoked and 
waged in the interest of dynasties or of little groups of am- 
bitious men who were accustomed to use their fellow-men as 
pawns and tools. 

"Self -governed nations do not fill their neighbor States 
with spies, or set the course of intrigue to bring about some 
critical posture of affairs which will give them an opportunity 
to strike and make conquest. Such designs can be successfully 
worked out only under cover and where no one has the right to 
ask questions. 

PRECONCEIVED DECEPTION. 

"Cunningly contrived plans of deception or aggression 
carried it may be from generation to generation, can be worked 
out and kept from the light only within the privacy of courts 
or behind the carefully guarded confidences of a narrow, privi- 
leged class. They are happily impossible where public opinion 
commands and insists upon full information concerning all the 
nation's affairs. 

"A steadfast concert for peace can never be maintained 
except by a partnership of democratic nations. No autocratic 
Government could be trusted to keep faith within it or observe 
its covenants. It must be a league of honor, a partnership of 
opinion. Intrigue would eat its vitals away; the plotting of 
inner circles who could plan what they would and render ac- 
count to no one would be a corruption seated at its very heart. 
Only free peoples can hold their purpose and their honor steady 
to a common end and prefer the interests of mankind to any 
narrow interest of their own. 

Does not every American feel that assurance has been 
added to our hope for the future peace of the world by the 



AMERICA STEPS IN. 335 

wonderful and heartening things that have been happening 
within the last few weeks in Russia? Russia was known by 
those who know it best to have been always in fact democratic 
at heart in all the vital habits of her thought, in all the intimate 
relationships of her people that spoke their natural instinct, 
their habitual attitude toward life. 

POLITICAL AUTOCRACY. 

"The autocracy that crowned the summit of her political 
structure, long as it had stood and terrible as was the reality 
of its power, was not, in fact, Russian in origin, character or 
purpose ; and now it has been shaken off and the great, gener- 
ous Russian people have been added in all their native majesty 
and might to the forces that are righting for freedom in the 
world, for justice and for peace. Here is a fit partner for a 
league of honor. 

"One of the things that have served to convince us that 
the Prussian autocracy was not and could never be our friend, 
is that from the very outset of the present war it has filled 
our unsuspecting communities and even our offices of Govern- 
ment with spies and set criminal intrigues everywhere afoot 
against our national unity and counsel, our peace within and 
without our industries and our commerce. 

"Indeed, it is now evident that its spies were here even 
before the war began ; and it is unhappily not a matter of con- 
jecture, but a fact proved in our courts of justice, that the 
intrigues which have more than once come perilously near to 
disturbing the peace and dislocating the industries of the coun- 
try have been carried on at the instigation, with the support, 
and even under the personal direction of official agents of the 
Imperial Government accredited to the Government of the 
United States. 

"Even in checking these things and trying to extirpate 
them, we have sought to put the most generous interpretation 
possible upon them because we knew that their source lay, not 



336 AMEEICA STEPS IN. 

in any hostile feeling or purpose of the German people toward 
us (who were, no doubt, as ignorant of them as we ourselves 
were) , but only in the selfish designs of a Government that did 
what it pleased and told its people nothing. But they have 
played their part in serving to convince us at last that that 
Government entertains no real friendship for us and means to 
act against our peace and security at its convenience. That it 
means to stir up enemies against us at our very doors the 
intercepted note to the German Minister at Mexico City is 
eloquent evidence. 

"We are accepting this challenge of hostile purpose be- 
cause we know that in such a Government, following such 
methods, we can never have a friend ; and that in the presence 
of its organized power, always lying in wait to accomplish we 
know not what purpose, there can be no assured security of the 
democratic Governments of the world. 

NATURAL FOE TO LIBERTY. 

"We are now about to accept gage of battle with this 
natural foe to liberty, and shall, if necessary, spend the whole 
force of the nation to check and nullify its pretensions and its 
power. We are glad, now that we see the facts with no veil 
of false pretense about them, to fight thus for the ultimate 
peace of the world and for the liberation of its peoples, the 
German peoples included; for the rights of nations great and 
small and the privilege of men everywhere to choose their way 
of life and of obedience. The world must be made safe for 
democracy. Its peace must be planted upon the tested founda- 
tions of political liberty. 

"We have no selfish ends to serve. We desire no con- 
quest, no dominion. We seek no indemnities for ourselves, no 
material compensation for the sacrifices we shall freely make. 
We are but one of the champions of the rights of mankind. 
We shall be satisfied when those rights have been as secure as 
the faith and the freedom of the nations can make them. 



AMERICA STEPS IN. 337 

"Just because we fight without rancour and without selfish 
object, seeking nothing for ourselves but what we shall wish to 
share with all free people, we shall, I feel confident, conduct 
our operations as belligerents without passion and ourselves 
observe with proud punctilio the principles of right and of fair 
play we profess to be fighting for. 

UNDISGUISED WARFARE. 

"I have said nothing of the Governments allied with the 
Imperial Government of Germany because they have not made 
war upon us or challenged us to defend our right and our honor. 
The Austro-Hungarian Government has, indeed, avowed its 
unqualified indorsement and acceptance of the reckless and 
lawless submarine warfare adopted now without disguise by 
the Imperial German Government, and it has, therefore, not 
been possible for this Government to receive Count Tamowski, 
the Ambassador recently accredited to this Government by the 
Imperial and Royal Government of Austria-Hungary; but 
that Government has not actually engaged in warfare against 
citizens of the United States on the seas, and I take the liberty, 
for the present at least, of postponing a discussion of our rela- 
tions with the authorities at Vienna. We enter this war only 
where we are clearly forced into it because there are no other 
means of defending our rights. 

"It will be all the easier for us to conduct ourselves as 
belligerents in a high spirit of right and fairness because we act 
without animus, not in enmity toward a people or with the 
desire to bring any injury or disadvantage upon them, but only 
in armed opposition to an irresponsible Government which has 
thrown aside all considerations of humanity and of right and 
is running amuck. 

"We are, let me say again, the sincere friends of the Ger- 
man people, and shall desire nothing so much as the early re- 
establishment of intimate relations of mutual advantage be- 

H K— 22 



338 AMERICA STEPS IN. 

tween us, however hard it may be for them, for the time being, 
to believe that this is spoken from our hearts. 

"We have borne with their present Government through 
all these bitter months because of that friendship, exercising a 
patience and forbearance which would otherwise have been im- 
possible. We shall, happily, still have an opportunity to prove 
that friendship in our daily attitude and actions toward the 
millions of men and women of German birth and native sym- 
pathy who live among us and share our life, and we shall be 
proud to prove it toward all who are in fact loyal to their neigh- 
bors and to the Government in the hour of test. 
TRUE AND LOYAL AMERICANS. 

"They are, most of them, as true and loyal Americans as 
if they had never known any other fealty or allegiance. They 
will be prompt to stand with us in rebuking and restraining 
the few who may be of a different mind and purpose. 

"If there should be disloyalty it will be dealt with with a 
firm hand of stern repression; but if it lifts its head at all it 
will lif t it only here and there, and without countenance except 
from a lawless and malignant few. 

"It is a distressing and oppressive duty, gentlemen of the 
Congress, which I have performed in thus addressing you. 
There are, it may be, many months of fiery trial and sacrifice 
ahead of us. It is a fearful thing to lead this great, peaceful 
people into war — into the most terrible and disastrous of all 
wars, civilization itself seeming to be in the balance. 

"But the right is more precious than peace, and we shall 
fight for the things which we have always carried nearest our 
hearts — for democracy, for the right of those who submit to 
authority to have a voice in their own government, for the 
rights and liberties of small nations, for a universal dominion 
of right by such a concert of free peoples as shall bring peace 
and safety to all nations and make the world itself at last free. 

"To such a task we can dedicate our lives and our fortunes, 



AMERICA STEPS IN. 339 

everything that we are and everything that we have, with the 
pride of those who know that the day has come when America 
is privileged to spend her blood and her might for the princi- 
ples that gave her birth and happiness and the peace which 
she has treasured. God helping her, she can do no other." 

While all the world knew that an actual state of war had 
existed between the two countries for months, the resolution 
declaring war as adopted by Congress on the plea of Presi- 
dent Wilson and signed by the President shortly after 1 o'clock 
on the afternoon of April 6, 1917 — Good Friday — was as fol- 
lows: 

"Whereas, The Imperial German Government has com- 
mitted repeated acts of war against the government and the 
people of the United States of America; therefore, be it 

A WAR RESOLUTION. 

"Resolved, By the Senate and House of Representatives 
of the United States of America, in Congress assembled, that 
the state of war between* the United States and the Imperial 
German Government which has thus been thrust upon the 
United States is hereby formally declared ; and that the Presi- 
dent be, and he is hereby authorized and directed to employ 
the entire naval and military forces of the United States and 
the resources of the government to carry on war against the 
Imperial German Government; and to bring the conflict to a 
successful termination all of the resources of the country are 
hereby pledged by the Congress of the United States." 

Immediately President Wilson issued a proclamation in 
which he called upon the people of the country to co-operate 
and give their support, pointing out the necessity for doing 
things other than putting men upon the firing line. And in 
his brief proclamation he outlined the entire comprehensive 
plan which, within a few months, was well under way. 

The placing of the navy upon a war footing; the creating 



340 AMERICA STEPS IN. 

and equipping of an adequate army; the supplying of ships; 
creating of loans ; the financing of the Allies ; the conservation 
of food products; the development of food and material re- 
sources ; the providing of munitions and supplies for the fight- 
ing forces abroad — all of these things were pointed to as neces- 
sary in the President's proclamation. 

Thus America, which had endeavored to remain neutral 
during months when Germany was arrogant and insulting, be- 
came aligned with the Allies in the struggle which for nearly 
three years had been waged in Europe. 

NEGOTIATIONS CARRIED ON. 

The negotiations between this country and Germany 
over the question of submarine warfare as affecting the lives 
of non-combatants and the rights of neutrals on the high seas 
in time of war had been carried on for two years. They had 
their origin on February 10, 1915, when, following the Ger- 
man announcement of February 4 that "the waters around 
Great Britain and Ireland, including the whole English Chan- 
nel, are declared a war zone on and after February 18, 1915," 
William J. Bryan, then Secretary of State, sent the "strict 
accountability" note to Berlin. 

Through successive stages the exchange of diplomatic 
papers continued, with growing feeling on both sides, because 
of the acts of German submarines, until the torpedoing of the 
cross-Channel steamer Sussex, on March 24, 1916, when the 
lives of twenty-five American citizens were imperiled and sev- 
eral suffered bodily injuries or shock. This attack resulted in 
the "Sussex note," or so-called "ultimatum" to Germany. 

The Sussex note, signed by Secretary Lansing, and sent 
to Germany April 19, 1916, concluded with the following 
declaration : 

"Unless the Imperial Government should now imme- 
diately declare and effect an abandonment of its present meth- 
ods of submarine warfare against passenger and freight-carry- 



AMERICA STEPS IN. 341 

ing vessels, the Government of the United States can have no 
choice but to sever diplomatic relations with the German Em- 
pire altogether." 

QUESTIONS GERMANY'S RIGHT. 

The first American note to the Imperial Government, of 
February 10, 1915, disputed the right of Germany to declare 
such a war zone as it had announced the week before, and con- 
tended for the international procedure of "visit and search" 
before attack on or capture of a neutral vessel. It embodied 
this phrase: 

"If such a deplorable situation should arise (wanton de- 
struction of an American ship) the Imperial German Govern- 
ment can readily appreciate that the Government of the Unit- 
ed States would be constrained to hold the Imperial German 
Government to a strict accountability for such acts of their 
naval authorities and to take any steps it might be necessary 
to take to safeguard American lives and property and to se- 
cure to Americans the full enjoyment of their acknowledged 
rights on the high seas." 

In reply the German Government sent a note under date 
of February 16, 1915, setting forth that the war zone procla- 
mation was in reprisal for the "blockade" of Great Britain and 
that if "at the eleventh hour" the United States should prevail 
upon Germany's enemies to abandon their methods of mari- 
time warfare, Germany would modify its order. It charged 
misuse of neutral flags and the arming of merchant ships by 
Great Britain. 

On February 20, in an identic note to Germany and Great 
Britain, the American Government suggested that both Powers 
cease their illegal activities. Such an agreement this Govern- 
ment proposed as a "modus vivendi" giving opportunity for 
further discussion of the points in controversy. Berlin accepted 
this note as "new evidence of the friendly feelings of the Amer- 
ican Government," but reserved a "definite statement" of the 



342 AMERICA STEPS IN. 

position of the Imperial Government until it learned "what 
obligations the British Government are on their part willing to 
assume." 

Subsequently, on March 28, the British steamship Falaba 
was sunk, with the loss of 163 lives, including one American. 
On April 28 the American steamship Gushing was attacked by 
an aeroplane, and on May 1 the American tanker Gulflight was 
attacked by a submarine and three United States citizens were 
lost. 

On May 1, also, the German Embassy at Washington 
caused to be inserted in many of the leading American news- 
papers the now famous advertisement warning Americans and 
others from taking passage on the Cunard liner Lusitania, 
intimating that it would be attacked. This was the day the 
Lusitania sailed on her ill-fated voyage. A number of the 
prominent passengers received personal notes when they 
reached the pier, advising them not to go, but most of them 
scouted the thought of danger. 

SUBMARINE ISSUE AND DIPLOMACY. 

After the sinking of the Lusitania, on May 7, off Fastnet, 
Ireland, with the loss of more than 1100 persons, among them 
115 Americans, the submarine issue assumed a large and 
gravely important place in the realm of diplomacy. 

The accumulation of cases affecting Americans was taken 
up in the first "Lusitania note" to Germany, which was dis- 
patched May 15, 1915. It characterized the attacks on the 
Falaba, Gushing, Gulflight and Lusitania as "a series of events 
which the United States has observed with growing concern, 
distress and amazement." It pointed to Germany's hitherto 
expressed "humane and enlightened attitude" in matters of 
international right, and expressed the hope that submarine 
commanders engaged in torpedoing peaceful ships without 
warning were in such practice operating without the sanction 
of their Governmnet. The note closed with these words : 



AMERICA STEPS IN. 343 

"The Imperial German Government will not expect the 
Government of the United States to omit any word or act 
necessary to the performance of its sacred duty of maintaining 
the rights of the United States and its citizens and of safeguard- 
ing their free exercise and enjoyment." 

On May 28, 1915, Germany replied with a note which cov- 
ered a wide range of argument and was in every respect unsatis- 
factory. It alleged that the Lusitania had masked guns aboard ; 
that she in effect was a British auxiliary cruiser ; that she carried 
munitions of war ; that her owning company, aware of the dam- 
ages she risked in the submarine war zone, was in reality respon- 
sible for the loss of American lives, and referred to the fact 
that the British Admiralty had offered large rewards to ship 
captains who rammed or destroyed submarines. 
PROMISED TO PAY DAMAGES. 

The note met none of the contentions of the United States 
so far as the Lusitania and Falaba incidents were concerned, 
although a supplementary note did acknowledge that Germany 
was wrong in the attacks on the Gushing and the Gulflight, 
expressed regret for these two cases and promised to pay dam- 
ages. While the American reply to the note was being framed 
dissension in the Cabinet resulted in the resignation of Secre- 
tary Bryan, who contended for a policy of warning Americans 
off belligerent ships. He resigned because he thought he could 
not sign the next note to Germany, which he feared would lead 
the United States into war. 

Meanwhile several sensational incidents cropped up in con- 
nection with the negotiations, chief of which was the sending of 
a message to the Berlin Foreign Office by Doctor Dumba, the 
Austrian Ambassador, afterward recalled at the request of 
President Wilson, which was represented as stating substan- 
tially that Mr. Bryan had intimated to the Ambassador that 
the vigorous tone of the American notes should not be regarded 
in Berlin as too warlike. 



344 AMERICA STEPS IN. 

Secretary Lansing took office as Mr. Bryan's successor, 
and his reply to the German note took issue with every conten- 
tion Germany had set up in the Falaba and Lusitania cases, 
denied flatly the contention that the Lusitania was armed or 
was to be treated as other than a peaceful merchant ship. 

The note averred that the declaration of a submarine war 
zone could not abbreviate the rights of Americans on lawful 
journeys, and added: "The Government of the United States 
therefore very earnestly and solemnly renews the representa- 
tions of its note transmitted to the Imperial German Gov- 
ernment on May 15, and relies in these representations upon 
the principles of humanity, the universally recognized under- 
standings of international law and the ancient friendship of 
the German nation." 

JAGOW'S EVASIVE ANSWER. 

To that note Germany did not reply until July 8, and 
the German rejoinder was preponderate^ characterized by 
American newspapers not as a note, but as an address by For- 
eign Minister von Jagow to the American people. In official 
circles it was said to come no nearer to meeting the American 
contentions than did the former German note. 

The nature of the reply was regarded officially as con- 
vincing evidence that Germany was holding the submarine war- 
fare negotiations as a club over the United States to force 
this Government into some action to compel Great Britain to 
relax the food blockade. President Wilson steadfastly refused 
to permit the diplomatic negotiations of the United States 
with one belligerent to become entangled with the relations with 
another. 

To that the United States replied on July 21 that the 
German note was "very unsatisfactory," because it failed to 
meet "the real differences between the two Governments." The 
United States, it declared, was keenly disappointed with Ger- 
many's attitude. Submarine attacks without warning, endan- 



AMERICA STEPS IN. 345 

gering Americans and other neutrals, were characterized as 
illegal and inhuman and manifestly indefensible. The German 
retaliation against the British blockade, it maintained, must 
not interfere with the rights of neutrals, which the note declared 
were "based upon principles, not expediency, and the prin- 
ciples are immutable." It declared that the United States 
would continue to contend for the freedom of the seas "from 
whatever quarter violated, without compromise and at any 
cost." The American note concluded with these words of 
warning : 

"Friendship itself prompts it (the United States Govern- 
ment) to say to the Imperial Government that repetition by 
the commanders of German naval vessels of acts in contra- 
vention of those rights must be regarded by the Government 
of the United States, when they affect American citizens, as 
deliberately unfriendly." 

"INFORMAL CONVERSATIONS." 

The negotiations at this |3oint seemed to have come to 
such an impasse that the exchanges of notes between Washing- 
ton and Berlin were stopped and the controversy was brought 
into the realm of "informal conversations" between Secretary 
Lansing and Count von Bernstorff, the German Ambassador. 
It was thought that much could be accomplished by personal 
contact which was lost in a cold exchange of documents. 

Meanwhile the Arabic was sunk on August 19. Coming 
close on the unsuccessful Lusitania negotiations and a continu- 
ation of submarine attacks in which Americans had suffered, 
it seemed that the United States and Germany had at last 
reached the point of a break. Then, on September 1, came 
the first rift in the threatening situation. Count von Bern- 
storff presented this written assurance to Secretary Lansing: 

"Liners will not be sunk by our submarines without warn- 
ing and without safety of noncombatants, provided that the 
liners do not try to escape or offer resistance." 



346 AMERICA STEPS IN. 

The United States had agreed all along that ships hailed 
for visit and search by a war vessel took a risk if they attempted 
to flee, but it contended not for the safety of "liners" alone, 
but for the immunity of all peaceful merchant vessels. The 
word "liners" was the perplexing point in Germany's assur- 
ances and a complete agreement on what it actually meant 
never was finally reached. 

More hopefulness was added to the situation when, on 
October 5, the Arabic case was disposed of by Germany dis- 
avowing the sinking and giving renewed assurances that sub- 
marine commanders had been again instructed to avoid repeti- 
tion of the acts which provoked American condemnation. 
Count von Bernstorff delivered to Secretary Lansing this com- 
munication : 

BERNSTORFF'S COMMUNICATION. 

"The orders issued by his Majesty the Emperor to the 
commanders of submarines — of which I notified you on a 
previous occasion — have been made so stringent that the re- 
currence of incidents similar to the Arabic case is considered 
out of the question. The Imperial Government regrets and dis- 
avows this act and has notified Commander Schneider accord- 
ingly." 

With that the negotiations reverted to the Lusitania case. 
Germany already had agreed to pay indemnity for American 
lives lost, but the negotiations were delayed by a seeming dead- 
lock over the words in which Germany should acknowledge the 
illegality of the destruction of the liner. Germany, unwilling to 
use the word "illegal," substituted a declaration that "reprisals 
must not be directed at others than enemy subjects." A formal 
communication, including such a declaration and expressing re- 
gret for loss of American lives, assuming liability and offering 
reparation in the form of indemnity, was submitted to Secretary 
Lansing. 

A favorable settlement of the long and threatened con- 



AMERICA STEPS IN. 347 

troversy seemed to be in sight when all the progress that had 
been made was reduced to nothing by Germany's declaration of 
a new submarine policy of sinking without warning all armed 
merchant ships. That precipitated a new situation so vitally 
interwoven with the whole structure of the Lusitania case that 
President Wilson declined to close the Lusitania settlement 
while the other issue was pending, and there the whole matter 
rested while German submarine warfare was contained and new 
cases involving loss of American lives piled up. 

Finally the accumulation of evidence reached such propor- 
tions with the torpedoing of the Sussex that President Wilson, 
convinced that assurances given in the Lusitania and Arabic 
cases were being violated, dispatched another note to Ger- 
many, and went before Congress, reviewed the entire situation 
from the beginning, and made this declaration : 
PRESIDENT'S DECLARATION. 

"I have deemed it my duty to say to the Imperial German 
Government that if it is still its purpose to prosecute relentless 
and indiscriminate warfare the Government of the United 
States is at last forced to the conclusion that there is only one 
course it can pursue; and that, unless the Imperial German 
Government should now, immediately, declare and effect an 
abandonment of its present methods of warfare against pas- 
senger and freight-carrying vessels this Government can have 
no choice but to sever diplomatic relations altogether." 

It will be noted that the President went further than 
"liners," and said "passenger and freight-carrying vessels." 

In the note sent at this time the President said : 

"No limit of any kind has in fact been set to the indis- 
criminate pursuit and destruction of merchantmen of all kinds 
and nationalities within the waters constantly extending in 
area where these operations have been carried on, and the roll 
of Americans who have lost their lives on ships thus attacked 
and destroyed has grown month by month until the ominous 



348 AMERICA STEPS IK 

toll has mounted into the hundreds. Again and again the Im- 
perial German Government has given this Government its 
solemn assurances that at least passenger ships would not be 
thus dealt with, and yet it has again and again permitted its 
undersea commanders to disregard those assurances with entire 
impunity." 

OPPOSED TO SUBMARINE WARFARE. 

During all the negotiations the Berlin Foreign Office 
looked to Count von Bernstorff to prevent a break. His atti- 
tude was represented as propitiatory from the viewpoint of the 
United States and opposed to the submarine warfare of Von 
Tirpitz. On several occasions he is said to have warned his 
Emperor personally that a continuance of the warfare against 
which the United States protested would surely lead to a 
break. Meanwhile the Ambassador's own position was embar- 
rassed by the operations of German sympathizers in the United 
States plotting against American neutrality. Some of these 
operations were traced directly to the military and naval at- 
taches of the embassy, who were withdrawn. 

Germany's final note in the Sussex case, received in Wash- 
ington on May 5, said that "the German naval forces have re- 
ceived the following order" : 

"In accordance with the general principles of visit and 
search and the destruction of merchant vessels recognized by 
international law, such vessels, both within and without the 
area declared a naval war zone, shall not be sunk without warn- 
ing and without saving human lives, unless the ship attempts 
to escape or offers resistance." 

Contending that the Imperial Government was unwilling 
to restrict an effective weapon if "the enemy is permitted to 
apply at will methods of warfare violating the rules of inter- 
national law," the note expressed the hope that the United 
States would "demand and insist that the British Government 



AMERICA STEPS IN. 349 

shall observe forthwith the rules of international law." The 
communication added : 

''Should the steps taken by the Government of the United 
States not attain the object it (the German Government) de- 
sires, to have the laws of humanity followed by all belligerent 
nations, the German Government would then be facing a new 
situation in which it must reserve to itself complete liberty of 
decision." 

To any such reservations the United States demurred in 
no uncertain terms. 

PRESIDENT WILSON'S REPLY. 

"The United States feels it necessary to state," said Presi- 
dent Wilson's reply, "that it takes it for granted that the Im- 
perial German Government does not intend to imply that the 
maintenance of its newly announced policy is any way contin- 
gent upon the course or result of diplomatic negotiations be- 
tween the Government of the United States and any other 
belligerent Government, notwithstanding the fact that certain 
passages in the Imperial Government's note might appear to be 
susceptible of that construction." 

In completing the declaration that there must be no mis- 
understanding that rights of American citizens must not be 
made subject to the conduct of some other Government, the 
note concluded by saying: "Responsibility in such matters is 
single, not joint; absolute, not relative." 

The climax came on February 1, 1917, when Count von 
Bernstorff, German Ambassador at Washington, handed to 
Secretary Lansing a note from Germany on the U-boat policy, 
supplemented by the "order" and declaration that the Imperial 
Government proposed to stop sea traffic in the "zones" which it 
marked as prohibited, by every means at its command. This is 
the restricted zone order: 

"From February 1, 1917, sea traffic will be stopped with 
every available weapon and without further notice in the fol- 



350 



AMERICA STEPS IN. 



lowing blockade zones around Great Britain, France, Italy and 
in the Eastern Mediterranean. 

"In the North: The zone is confined by a line at a distance 
of twenty sea miles along the Dutch coast to Terschelling fire- 
ship, the degree of longitude from Terschelling fireship to 
Udsire (Norway), a line from there across, the point 62 de- 



ST. PETSBSBu&tz 




ikive foe u s. 

SH/PS 



THE BLOCKADE ZONES. 



grees north degrees longitude to 62 degrees north 5 degrees 
west, further to a point three sea miles south of the southern 
point of the Farve (Faroe?) Islands, from there across a point 
62 degrees north 10 degrees west to 61 degrees north 15 degrees 
west, then 57 degrees north 20 degrees west to 47 degrees north 
20 degrees west, further to 43 degrees north, 15 degrees west, 



AMEEICA STEPS IN. 351 

then along the degree of latitude 43 degrees north to 20 sea 
miles from Cape Finisterre and at a distance of 20 sea miles 
along the north coast of Spain to the French boundary. 

"In the south (Mediterranean) : 

"For neutral ships remains open : The sea west of the line 
Pt des' Espiquette to 38 degrees 20 minutes north and 6 de- 
grees east, also north and west of a zone 61 sea miles wide along 
the North African coast, beginning at 2 degrees longitude west. 
For the connection of this sea zone with Greece there is provided 
a zone of a width of 20 sea miles north and east of the following 
line: 38 degrees north and 6 degrees east to 38 degrees north 
and 10 degrees west to 37 degrees north and 11 degrees 30 
minutes east to 34 degrees north and 22 degrees 30 minutes 
east. From there leads a zone 20 sea miles wide west of 22 de- 
grees 30 minutes eastern longitude into Greek territorial 
waters. 

NEUTRAL SHIPS' RISK. 

"Neutral ships navigating these blockade zones do so at 
their own risk. Although care has been taken that neutral ships 
which are on their way toward ports of the blockade zones on 
February 1, 1917, and which have come in the vicinity of the 
latter, will be spared during a sufficiently long period, it is 
strongly advised to warn them with all available means in order 
to cause their return. 

"Neutral ships which on February 1 are in ports of the 
blockade zones can with the same safety leave them. 

"The instructions given to the commanders of German sub- 
marines provide for a sufficiently long period during which the 
safety of passengers on unarmed enemy passenger ships is 
guaranteed. 

"Americans en route to the blockade zone on enemy freight 
steamships are not endangered, as the enemy shipping firms 
ean prevent such ships in time from entering the zone. 



352 AMERICA STEPS IN. 

" Sailing of regular American passenger steamships may- 
continue undisturbed after February 1, 1917, if 

" (a) The port of destination is Falmouth. 

" (b) Sailing to or coming from that port course is taken 
via the Scilly Islands and a point 50 degrees north, 20 degrees 
west. 

"(c) The steamships are marked in the following way, 
which must not be allowed to other vessels in American ports : 
On ship's hull and superstructure three vertical stripes one 
meter wide each to be painted alternately white and red. Each 
mast should show a large flag checkered white and red and the 
stern the American national flag. Care should be taken that 
during dark national flag and painted marks are easily recog- 
nizable from a distance, and that the boats are well lighted 
throughout. 

"(d) One steamship a week sails in each direction, with 
arrival at Falmouth on Sunday and departure from Falmouth 
on Wednesday. 

"(e) United States Government guarantees that no con- 
traband (according to German contraband list) is carried by 
those steamships." 

Immediately after the signing of the Congressional reso- 
lution declaring America at war, President Wilson ordered the 
mobilization of the United States Navy, and the Senate voted 
an emergency war fund of $100,000,000 for the use of the 
President. The forces of the United States on land and sea and 
in every country under the sun were notified that a state of war 
existed. 

The entrance of America was regarded throughout the 
world as one of the most significant moves in the history of 
nations, and it filled the Allied forces with enthusiasm. Typical 
of the expressions on the part of the representatives of the 
Governments at war with Germany was that of Lloyd George, 
Premier of England, who said: 



AMERICA STEPS IN. 353 

"America has at one bound become a world power in a 
sense she never was before. She waited until she found a cause 
worthy of her traditions. The American people held back 
until they were fully convinced that the fight was not a sordid 
scrimmage for power and possessions, but an unselfish strug- 
gle to overthrow a sinister conspiracy against human liberty 
and human rights. 

"Once that conviction was reached, the great Republic of 
the West has leaped into the arena, and she stands now side by 
side with the European democracies, who, bruised and bleeding 
after three years of grim conflict, are still fighting the most 
savage foe that ever menaced the freedom of the world. 

"The glowing phrases of the President's noble deliverance 
illumine the horizon and make clearer than ever the goal we 
are striving to reach. 

DEMOCRACY, FREEDOM AND PEACE. 

"There are three phrases which will stand out forever in 
the story of this crusade. The first is that 'the world must be 
made safe for democracy,' the next, 'the menace to peace and 
freedom lies in the existence of autocratic governments backed 
by organized force, which is controlled wholly by their will and 
not by the will of their people,' and the crowning phrase is 
that in which he declares that 'a steadfast concert for peace 
can never be maintained except by the partnership of demo- 
cratic nations.' 

"These words represent the faith which inspires and sus- 
tains our people in the tremendous sacrifices they have made 
and are still making. They also believe that the unity and 
peace of mankind can only rest upon democracy, upon the 
right to have a voice in their own Government; upon respect 
for the right and liberties of nations both great and small, and 
upon the universal dominion of public right. 

"To all of these the Prussian military autocracy is an im- 
placable foe. 



354 AMERICA STEPS IN. 

"The Imperial War Cabinet, representative of all the 
peoples of the British Empire, wish me on their behalf to rec- 
ognize the chivalry and courage which call the people of the 
United States to dedicate the whole of their resources to the 
greatest cause that ever engaged human endeavor." 



CHAPTER XXI. 

UNCLE SAM TAKES HOLD. 

Makes World's Biggest War Loan — Seize German Ships — .Intrigue Exposed — 
General Pershing and Staff in Europe — The Navy on Duty in North Sea 
— Eirst United States Troops Eeach Prance — Germany's Attempts to 
Sink Troop Ships Thwarted by Navy's Guns. 

SCARCELY had the ink had time to dry on the Nation's 
command to begin war than Congress voted an appropria- 
tion of $7,000,000,000 for war purposes. This, the largest 
single appropriation ever made by a government in the world, 
was passed without a dissenting vote. Still later, a deficiency 
bill of $2,827,000,000 for war expenses was passed. Other 
legislative measures provided for the increase of the army and 
navy a,nd for "selective conscription," although the latter was 
passed in the face of considerable opposition on the part of 
many who believed that in a democracy armies should be raised 
by volunteer recruiting. Many felt that compulsory service 
was not in accordance with the ideals of liberty. 

The Conscription Act provided for the registration of 
every male citizen or resident in the United States between the 
ages of 21 and 31 years, and was enacted on May 19, 1917- 
Registration of these military available was made on June 5, 
when 10,000,000 names were entered on the rolls as subject to 
draft by the Government. The principle of "selective con- 
scription" is that the authorities shall have the right to exempt 
from military duty among those registered such persons whose 
employment in civil life is necessary to the maintenance of the, 
industries and business of the country, as well as those who, 
though physically fit, have others dependent upon them for 
support. 

One of the first acts of the Government after the declara- 
tion of war was the seizure of the German merchant vessels 
interned in United States ports. These vessels had a ton- 

355 



356 UNCLE SAM TAKES HOLD. 

nage of upward of 629,000 tons and were estimated as being 
worth in the neighborhood of $100,000,000. The seizure was 
notable in that it was the largest ever made by a country at 
war. 

When the Government went to take charge of the vessels 
it was found that the German officers had destroyed parts of 
the machinery in many of them in an attempt to put them out 
of commission. The condition of the boats was such that all 
of them had to be put in drydock, and it was several months 
before some of them could be put in condition for use. 

SIXTY RINGLEADERS ARRESTED. 

Immediately the ships had been seized an order was issued 
by Attorney General Gregory for the arrest of sixty alleged 
ringleaders in German plots, conspiracies and machinations 
throughout the United States. The Department of Justice, 
which had long been gathering evidence in connection with the 
suspects, had complete reports about their activities. They 
were all German citizens, had participated in German 
intrigues, and all were regarded as dangerous persons to be 
at large. 

They were all arrested, bail was refused them, and they 
were locked up for safekeeping. This was the first step in the 
general rounding up of the conspirators throughout the coun- 
try. The men were placed in three groups: Those having 
previously been arrested charged with violation of American 
neutrality in furthering German plots of various sorts and 
who were at liberty under bond awaiting the action of higher 
courts ; those who had been indicted by Federal Grand Juries 
for similar offenses and were at liberty under bond awaiting 
the action of the higher courts, and persons who, although they 
had never been indicted or convicted, had long been under 
surveillance by the Secret Service, or the investigators of the 
Department of Justice. 

These arrests were the first of alien enemies made in 



UNCLE SAM TAKES HOLD. 357 

this country in more than a century, under the direct order of 
the Attorney General without reference to the courts or obtain- 
ing warrants. Under an act of Congress passed in 1798 the 
President is empowered to adopt this course. The right had 
not been invoked, however, since the war with Great Britain 
in 1812. 

ARREST OF GERMAN PLOTTERS. 

The arrests were only the beginning of the work of the 
Secret Service Department in a complete investigation of the 
activities of the thousands of German reservists, stationed in 
the United States, and suspected of being connected with plots 
which daily were cropping out. These plots were being 
exposed constantly. Some were abandoned before being 
completely worked out, owing to the fact that the Germans 
suspected they were being shadowed. It was estimated that 
there were in the United States at the time of the discoveries 
of conspiracies between 15,000 and 18,000 German reservists 
in the prime of life, whose energies were undoubtedly being 
employed in the spreading of the German propaganda. It 
was upon this army that the Secret Service men kept a close 
watch, and who were generally found to have within their 
ranks the men wanted at various times in connection with the 
advancement of German plans. 

Many of the Germans arrested were quasi-officials of the 
German government. Some of them, it is alleged, were the 
instrumentalities through which Captain Boy-Ed and Captain 
von Papen had carried out their activities in this country 
against the Allies. A number of those arrested were prop- 
erly classed as spies. Camps were established for the sailors 
taken from the interned German vessels, and many of them 
were sent to Port Oglethorpe, Georgia, where they were held. 

The far-reaching influence of the German spy system 
was at this time laid before the American public, with all of 
its startling ramifications. Por months there had been stories 



358 UNCLE SAM TAKES HOLD. 

of German intrigue and conspiracies, and the Secret Service 
had unearthed innumerable plots to destroy ammunition 
plants and industrial establishments, which would have the 
effect of making it difficult for America to supply ammu- 
nition to the Allies. 

The most insidious scheme unearthed by the government 
was that which had to do with the attempt of Germany to 
secure the alliance of Mexico and Japan to make war on the 
United States. 

Japan, through Mexican mediation, was to be urged to 
abandon her allies and join in the attack on the United States. 

Mexico, for her reward, was to receive general financial 
support from Germany, reconquer Texas, New Mexico and 
Arizona — lost provinces — and share in the victorious peace 
terms Germany contemplated. 

MACHINATIONS OF GERMAN MINISTER. 

Details were left to German Minister von Eckhardt in 
Mexico City, who by instructions signed by German Foreign 
Minister Zimmerman, at Berlin, January 19, 1917, was di- 
rected to propose the alliance with Mexico, to General Car- 
ranza, and suggest that Mexico seek to bring Japan into the 
plot. 

These instructions were transmitted to von Eckhardt 
through Count von Bernstorff, former German Ambassador. 

Germany pictured to Mexico, by broad intimation, Eng- 
land and the entente allies defeated, Germany and her allies 
triumphant and in world domination by the instrument of 
unrestricted submarine warfare. 

A copy of Zimmerman's instructions to von Eckhardt, 
sent through von Bernstorff, is in possession of the United 
States government, lit is as follows: 

"Berlin, January 19, 1917. 
"On the first of February we intend to begin submarine 



UNCLE SAM TAKES HOLD. 359 

warfare unrestricted. In spite of this, it is our intention to 
endeavor to keep neutral the United States of America. 

"If this attempt is not successful we propose an alliance 
on the following basis with Mexico : That we shall make war 
together and together make peace. We shall give general 
financial support, and it is understood that Mexico is to re- 
conquer the lost territory in New Mexico, Texas and Ari- 
zona. The details are left to you for settlement. 

"You are instructed to inform the President of Mexico 
of the above, in the greatest confidence, as soon as it is cer- 
tain that there will be an outbreak of war with the United 
States, and suggest that the President of Mexico, on his own 
initiative, should communicate with Japan, suggesting adher- 
ence at once to this plan; at the same time, offer to mediate 
between Germany and Japan. 

"Please call to the attention of the President of Mexico 
that the employment of ruthless submarine warfare now prom- 
ises to compel England to make peace in a few months. 

"ZIMMERMAN." 

BETHMANN-HOLLWEG'S FALSE STATEMENT. 

This document was in the possession of the government 
at the very time Chancellor von Bethmann-Hollweg was de- 
claring that the United States had placed an interpretation 
on the submarine declaration "never intended by Germany," 
and that Germany had promoted and honored friendly rela- 
tions with the United States "as an heirloom from Frederick 
the Great." 

Of itself, if there were no other, it is considered a suffi- 
cient answer to the German Chancellor's plaint that the 
United States "brusquely" broke off relations without giving 
"authentic" reasons for its action. 

The document supplies the missing link to many sepa- 
rate chains of circumstances, which until then had seemed to 
lead to no definite point. It shed new light upon the fre- 



360 UNCLE SAM TAKES HOLD. 

quently reported but indefinable movements of the Mexican 
government to couple its situation with the friction between 
the United States and Japan. 

It added another chapter to the celebrated report of 
Jules Cambon, French Ambassador in Berlin before the war, 
of Germany's world-wide plans for stirring strife on every 
continent where they might aid her in the struggle for world 
domination, which she dreamed was close at hand. It added 
a climax to the operations of Count von Bernstorff and the 
German Embassy in this country, which had been colored with 
passport frauds, charges of dynamite plots and intrigue, the 
full extent of which never had been published. 

And last but not least, it explained in a very large de- 
gree the attitude of the Mexican government toward the 
United States on many points. 

UNCLE SAM NOT BOTHERED. 

But the efforts of the German enthusiasts, which carried 
them beyond the bounds of reasonable safety in the United 
States, did not bother Uncle Sam much in the prosecution of 
his war plans. Within a short period after the declaration of 
war the country had written a chapter in national achieve- 
ment unrivalled in the history of the world. 

American destroyers were mobilized, outfitted and sent 
to the North Sea within a few days after the nation entered 
the conflict. With them went their own supply vessels and 
numerous converted craft adapted to naval use. Their num- 
ber and the exact duty they have assumed never have been re- 
vealed, but that they have been recognized as a formidable part 
of the grand allied fleet was evidenced by the designation of 
American Vice Admiral Sims to command all the forces in the 
important zone off Ireland. 

The fleet began actual duty in the European waters on 
May 4, and the presence of the vessels and the American sail- 
ors was the subject of official correspondence. The British 



UNCLE SAM TAKES HOLD. 361 

Admiralty announced the arrival of the American destroyers 
as follows: 

"The British Admiralty states that a flotilla of United 
States destroyers recently arrived in this country to co-oper- 
ate with our naval forces in the prosecution of the war. 

"The services which the American vessels are rendering 
to the allied cause are of the greatest value and are deeply 
appreciated." 

Vice Admiral Sir David Beatty, commander of the 
British Grand Fleet, sent the following message to Admiral 
Henry T. Mayo, commander of the United States Atlantic 
Fleet: 

"The Grand Fleet rejoices that the Atlantic Fleet will 
now share in preserving the liberties of the world and main- 
taining the chivalry of the sea." 

Admiral Mayo replied: 

"The United States Atlantic Fleet appreciates the mes- 
sage from the British Fleet and welcomes opportunities for 
work with the British Fleet for the freedom of the seas." 
GENERAL PERSHING IN ENGLAND. 

Less than a month later Major General John J. Persh- 
ing, with his staff, were safely in England ready to take com- 
mand of the first expeditionary force that ever set foot on the 
European shores to make war. General Pershing's personal 
staff and the members of the General Staff who went to per- 
form the preliminary work for the first fighting force, num- 
bered 57 officers and about 50 enlisted men, together with a 
civilian clerical force. 

The party landed at Liverpool on June 8, after an un- 
eventful trip on the White Star liner Baltic. The party was 
received with full military honors and immediately entrained 
for London, where it was welcomed by Lord Derby, the Min- 
ister of War; Viscount French, commander of the British 
home forces, and a large body of American officials. 



362 UNCLE SAM TAKES HOLD. 

In London General Pershing was later received at Buck- 
ingham Palace by King George. 

He was presented to the King by Lord Brooke, com- 
mander of the Twelfth Canadian Infantry Brigade. General 
Pershing was accompanied to the palace by his personal staff 
of twelve officers. After the audience the officers paid a for- 
mal call at the United States embassy. 

PERSHING RECEIVES ROYAL GREETING. 

After the formal reception the King shook hands with 
General Pershing and the members of his staff, and expressed 
pleasure at welcoming the advance guard of the American 
army. King George chatted for a few moments with each 
member of General Pershing's staff. In addressing General 
Pershing the King said : 

"It has been the dream of my life to see the two great 
English-speaking nations more closely united. My dreams 
have been realized. It is with the utmost pleasure that I 
welcome you, at the head of the American contingent, to our 
shores." 

Major General Pershing's staff has been characterized as 
"one of live wires." Most of the officers are West Pointers, 
but there are among them some who rose from the ranks, in- 
cluding Major James G. Harbord, chief of staff. 

General Pershing reached France on June 13, where he 
was given a tumultuous welcome. He landed at Boulogne in 
the morning and was met by General Pelletier, representing 
the French government and General Headquarters of the 
French army; Commandant Hue, representing the Minister 
of War; General Lucas, commanding the northern region; 
Colonel Daru, Governor of Lille; the Prefect of the Somme 
and other officials. 

Among the latter were Rene Besnard, Under Secretary 
of War, representing the Cabinet; Commandant Thouzellier, 



UNCLE SAM TAKES HOLD. 363 

representing Marshal Joffre, and Vice- Admiral Ronarch, rep- 
resenting the navy. 

The scene in the harbor as General Pershing set foot on 
French soil was one of striking beauty and animation. The 
day was bright and sunny. The quays were crowded with 
townspeople and soldiers from all Entente armies, with 
French and British troops predominating. 

The shipping was gay with flags and bunting, many mer- 
chant craft hoisting American flags, while along the crowded 
quays the American colors were everywhere shown as a token 
of the French welcome. 

PERSHING RECEIVES AN OVATION. 

A great wave of enthusiasm came from the crowds as 
General Pershing stepped upon the quay and as the band 
played the "Marseillaise" he and the members of his staff 
stood uncovered. M. Besnard, in greeting the American 
commander in behalf of the government, said the Americans 
had come to France to combat with the Allies for the same 
cause of right and civilization. General Pelletier extended 
a greeting to the Americans in behalf of the army. 

General Dumas, commandant of the region in which 
Boulogne is located, said: 

"Your coming opens a new era in the history of the world. 
The United States of America is now taking its part with 
the United States of Europe. Together they are about to 
found the United States of the World, which will definitely 
and finally end the war and give a peace which will be endur- 
ing and suitable for humanity." 

General Pershing stood at parade as the various ad- 
dresses were delivered and acknowledged each with a salute. 

British soldiers and marines lined up along the quays had 
rendered military honors as the vessel flying the Stars and 
Stripes, preceded by destroyers and accompanied by hydro- 
planes and dirigible balloons, steamed up the channel. Mili- 



364 UNCLE ISAM TAKES HOLD. 

tary bands played "The Star-Spangled Banner" and the 
"Marseillaise" as General Pelletier and his party boarded the 
boat to welcome General Pershing. 

After the representatives of the French authorities had 
been presented to the American officers, the party landed and 
reviewed the French territorials. The Americans then entered 
motor cars for a ride around the city. All along the route 
they were followed by crowds of people who greeted General 
Pershing with the greatest enthusiasm. 

PERSHING IN PARIS. 

The General and his staff were taken in a special train to 
Paris, where General Pershing was received by Marshal 
Joffre, Ambassador Sharp and Paul Painleve, French Min- 
ister of War. In the French capital General Pershing and 
staff were received by the populace with wild enthusiasm, and 
for several days they were feted and entertained. 

There were, during the short period of entertainment, 
several incidents which will long be noted in history, as when 
General Pershing visited the Tomb of Napoleon and when he 
took from its case the sword of the world conqueror and kissed 
it, and again when he placed a wreath on the grave of 
Lafayette. 

Within a few days General Pershing had established the 
army headquarters in the Rue De Constantine and began the 
work preliminary to the campaign on the firing line. 

Second only to the enthusiastic reception tendered Gen- 
eral Pershing and his staff was that accorded the first United 
States Medical Unit, which reached London in June. The 
vanguard of the American army, composed of 26 surgeons 
and 60 nurses, in command of Major Harry L. Gilchrist, was 
received by King George and Queen Mary, the Prince of 
Wales and Princess Mary, at Buckingham Palace. 

The reception to General Pershing and the Medical 
branch was, however, nothing as compared to the popular 



UNCLE SAM TAKES HOLD. 365 

demonstration which marked the arrival of the first of the 
American armed forces on European shores to participate in 
war. The vanguard of the army reached France on June 27. 
No official announcement was ever made of the number of 
men in the first expeditionary force, but it is an incident of 
modern history that the United States made a record for the 
transportation of troops across the seas scarcely equalled by 
that of any other country. 

ABSOLUTE SECRECY OBSERVED. 

All America knew that troops were being sent to France, 
but no information had been given as to the time of departure 
or as to their destination. The world was, therefore, fairly 
electrified when the announcement was made that in defiance 
of the German submarines, thousands of seasoned regulars 
and marines, trained fighting men, with the tan of long service 
on the Mexican border, in Haiti, or Santo Domingo still on 
their faces, had arrived in France to fight beside the French, 
the British, the Belgians, the Russians, the Portuguese and 
the Italian troops on the Western front. 

Despite the enormous difficulties of unpreparedness and 
the submarine dangers that faced them, the plans of the army 
and navy were carried through with clock-like precision. 

When the order came to prepare immediately an expe- 
ditionary force to go to France, virtually all of the men who 
first crossed the seas were on the Mexican border. General 
Pershing himself was at his headquarters in San Antonio. 
There were no army transports available in the Atlantic. The 
vessels that carried the troops were scattered on their usual 
routes. Army reserve stores were still depleted from the bor- 
der mobilization. Regiments were below war strength. That 
was the condition when President Wilson decided that the plea 
of the French high commission should be answered and a force 
of regulars sent at once to France. 

At his word the War Department began to move. Gen- 



366 UNCLE SAM TAKES HOLD. 

eral Pershing was summoned quietly to Washington. His 
arrival created some speculation in the press, but at the re- 
quest of Secretary Baker the newspapers generally refrained 
from discussion of this point. 

There were a thousand other activities afoot in the de- 
partment at the time. All the business of preparing for the 
military registration of 10,000,000 men, of providing quarters 
and instructors for nearly 50,000 prospective officers, for find- 
ing arms and equipment for millions of troops yet to be or- 
ganized, of expanding the regular army to full war strength, 
of preparing and recruiting the National Guard for war was 
at hand. 

PERSHING SETS UP HEADQUARTERS. 

General Pershing dropped quietly into the department 
and set up the first headquarters of the American expedition- 
ary forces in a little office, hardly large enough to hold him- 
self and his personal staff. There, with the aid of the general 
staff, of Secretary Baker and of the chiefs of the War De- 
partment bureaus, the plans were worked out. 

Announcement of the sending of the force under Gen- 
eral Pershing was made May 18. The press gave the news 
to the country and there were daily stories. 

There came a day when General Pershing no longer was 
in the department. Officers of the general staff suddenly were 
missing from their desks. Nb word of this was reported. 
Then came word from England that Pershing and his officers 
were there. All was carried through without publicity. 

Other matters relating to the expedition were carried out 
without a word of publicity. The regiments that were to go 
with General Pershing were all selected before he left and 
moving toward the seacoast from the border. Other regiments 
also were moving north, east and west to the points where 
they were to be expanded, and the movements of the troops 
who were to be first in France were obscured in all this hur- 
rying of troop trains over the land. 



UNCLE SAM TAKES HOLD. 367 

Great shipments of war supplies began to assemble at 
the embarkation ports. Liners suddenly were taken off their 
regular runs with no announcement. A great armada was 
made ready, supplied, equipped as transports, loaded with 
men and guns and sent to sea, and all with virtually no men- 
tion from the press. 

The navy bore its full share in the achievement. From 
the time the troop ships left their docks and headed toward 
sea, responsibility for the lives of their thousands of men rested 
upon the officers and crews of the fighting ships that moved 
beside them or swept free the sea lanes before them. As they 
pushed on through the days and nights toward the danger 
zone, where German submarines lay in wait, every precaution 
that trained minds of the navy could devise was taken. 
A BRILLIANT CLIMAX. 

The brilliant climax to the achievement was made public 
when it was announced that not only had the last units of the 
expeditionary force been landed on July 3, but that the 
American navy had driven off two German submarines, prob- 
ably sinking one of them, when the transport ships and con- 
voys had been attacked. 

The last units of the American expeditionary force, com- 
prising vessels loaded with supplies and horses, reached 
France amid the screeching of whistles and moaning of sirens. 
Their arrival, one week after the first troops landed, was 
greeted almost as warmly as the arrival of the troops them- 
selves. 

Many of the American soldiers crowded down to the 
wharf to greet the last ships of the expedition and the Ameri- 
can vessels in the harbor, which had made up previous con- 
tingents of the force, joined in the welcome. The late arrival 
of the supply ships was due not only to later departure from 
America, but also to the fact that the vessels were slower than 
those which had come before. The delay caused little anxiety, 



368 UNCLE SAM TAKES HOLD. 

although it worked temporary inconvenience to the troops, 
who had been waiting for materials with which to work. 

Probably the happiest man in port was Rear Admiral 
Gleaves, commander of the convoy. From the bridge of his 
flagship he watched the successful conclusion of his plans with 
characteristic modesty and insisted upon bestowing the lion's 
share of credit for the crossing on the navigating officers of 
his command. 

ADVANCE PLANS BRIEFLY SKETCHED. 

Sketching briefly the advance plans whereby all units of 
the contingent had to keep a daily rendezvous with accom- 
panying warships, he said, that, thanks to his navigating offi- 
cers and despite overcast skies, which made astronomical 
observations impossible, each rendezvous had been minutely 
and accurately kept by each unit. The orders he issued at the 
outset, which comprised scores of details, were observed, the 
Admiral declared, with such exactness that the contingent 
units and convoying warships invariably met each other with- 
in half an hour of the appointed time. 

A big contributing factor in the crossing, according to 
officers of both branches of the service, was the hearty co- 
operation between the army and navy. From the time of the 
departure until the landing there was not the slightest sugges- 
tion of friction, and co-ordination played its part distinctively 
in the success of the expedition. 

The startling fact of the entire journey across the sea was 
that the Navy had won its first victory in driving off attack- 
ing submarines. The news of the fight was given out by the 
Navy Department and the Committee on Public Information, 
with the announcement of the final landing of the troops and 
the safe arrival of the supply ships. 

The announcement, sponsored by Secretary Daniels, of 
the Navy, shows beyond the shadow of doubt that the Berlin 
Admiralty had been "tipped off" that the American expedi- 



UNCLE SAM TAKES HOLD. 369 

tionary force was on its way, and had carefully planned to 
send the transports to the bottom of the Atlantic. 

Realizing that an attack might be expected in the war 
zone, and that every precaution would be taken to ward it off, 
the Germans moved far out from land, in the hope of catch- 
ing the American gunners napping. They were fooled. 
Uncle Sam's jackies were at the guns when the fleet of sub- 
marines stuck their periscopes above the waves and trained 
their torpedo tubes on the lines of transports. 

WAVES COVERED WITH SHELLS. 

The torpedo boats and other craft opened up and cov- 
ered the waves with shells. The Germans soon lost at least 
one submarine and, having had enough of the fight, they dis- 
appeared. As the little destroyers dashed straight at the sub- 
marines and shot under water explosives in their wake as they 
submerged, the transports dashed through the night at top 
speed without having been scratched. 

The extreme degree to which the Germans had prepared 
to destroy the American force is shown by the second part of 
the official announcement, which tells how another section of 
the transport fleet was waylaid under cover of darkness, but 
how the American gunners were too quick for the Germans. 

The text of Secretary Daniels' announcement was: 

"It is with the joy of a great relief that I announce to 
the people of the United States the safe arrival in France of 
every fighting man and every fighting ship. Now that the 
last vessel has reached port, it is safe to disclose the dangers 
that were encountered and to tell the complete story of peril 
and courage. 

"The transports bearing our troops were twice attacked 

by German submarines on the way across. On both occasions 

the U-boats were beaten off with every appearance of loss. 

One was certainly sunk, and there is reason to believe that the 

accurate fire of our gunners sent others to the bottom. 
H -R—2& 



370 UNCLE SAM TAKES HOLD. 

"For purposes of convenience, the expedition was divided 
into contingents, each contingent including troopships and a 
naval escort designed to keep off such German raiders as 
might be met. 

"An ocean rendezvous had also been arranged with the 
American destroyers now operating in European waters in 
order that the passage of the danger zone might be attended 
by every possible protection. 

"The first attack took place at 10.30 on the night of June 
22. What gives it peculiar and disturbing significance is that 
our ships were set upon at* a point well this side of the ren- 
dezvous, and in that part of the Atlantic presumably free 
from submarines. The attack was made in force, although 
the night made impossible any exact count of the U-boats 
gathered for what they deemed a slaughter. 
HIGH SEAS CONVOY. 

"The high seas convoy, circling with their searchlights, 
answered with heavy gunfire, and its accuracy stands proved 
by the fact that the torpedo discharge became increasingly 
scattered and inaccurate. It is not known how many tor- 
pedoes were launched, but five were counted as they sped by 
bow and stern. 

"A second* attack was launched a few days later against 
another contingent. The point of assault was beyond the ren- 
dezvous and our destroyers were sailing as a screen between 
the transports and all harm. The results of the battle were in 
favor of American gunnery. 

"Not alone did the destroyers hold the U-boats at a safe 
distance, but their speed also resulted in the sinking of one 
submarine at least. Grenades were used in firing, a depth 
charge explosive timed to go off at a certain distance under 
water. In one instance, oil and wreckage covered the surface 
of the sea after a shot from a destroyer at a periscope, and the 
reports make claim of sinking. 



UNCLE SAM TAKES HOLD. 371 

"Protected by our high seas convoy, by our destroyers 
and by French war vessels, the contingent proceeded and 
joined the others in a French port. 

"The whole nation will rejoice that so great a peril is 
passed for the vanguard of the men who will fight our battles 
in France. No more thrilling Fourth of July celebration 
could have been arranged than this glad news that lifts the 
shadow of dread from the heart of America." 

Upon receipt of the announcement, Secretary Baker 
wrote the following letter to Secretary Daniels, conveying the 
army's thanks to the navy: 

"Word has just come to the War Department that the 
last ships conveying General Pershing's expeditionary force 
to France arrived safe today. As you know, the navy assumed 
the responsibility for the safety of these ships on the sea and 
through the danger zone. The ships themselves and their 
convoys were in the hands of the navy, and now that they have 
arrived, and carried, without the loss of a man, our soldiers 
who are the first to represent America in the battle for democ- 
racy* I beg leave to tender to you, to the Admiral and to the 
navy, the hearty thanks of the War Department and of the 
army. This splendid achievement is an auspicious beginning 
and it has been characterized throughout by the most cordial 
and effective co-operation between the two military services." 



CHAPTER XXII. 

A GERMAN CRISIS. 

The Downfall of Bethmann-Hollweg — The Crown Prince in the Lime Light 
— Hollweg's Unique Cabeeri — Be. Georg Michaelis Appointed Chancellor 
— The Kaiser and How He Gets His Immense Power. 

THE active participation of the United States in the war, 
as distinctly marked by the sending of troops to France, 

aside from giving needed inspiration to the Allied forces, 
may be said to have had a decided effect in Germany. While 
the German subjects are loyal, there has developed in the 
country, as in every other country, a large element of Social- 
ists and progressives. 

Something of a climax was reached in the affairs of the 
Hohenzollern dynasty just when the United States troops 
were preparing to take their places on the battle line in France 
and when the first of the conscripted forces of the country 
were being summoned to the colors. 

With a suddenness that startled the entire world, Dr. 
von Bethmann-Hollweg, the German Imperial Chancellor, 
resigned on July 14, thus ending his career as the spokesman 
of the Kaiser, which he had maintained for a surprisingly long 
period. At the same time Dr. Alfred Zimmermann, Foreign 
Minister, who was responsible for the correspondence which 
revealed the fact that Germany was trying to induce Mexico 
and Japan to form an alliance against the United States, also 
quit his post. 

The resignation of the Chancellor came quite unexpect- 
edly, for von Hollweg, in the prolonged party discussion and 
heated debates of the main committee of the Reichstag which 
had been in progress, seemed to have triumphed over his 
opponents. 

His opponents had been clamoring for his head, but he 

372 



A GERMAN CRISIS. 373 

made concessions, and by the declaration that Germany was 
fighting defensively for her territorial possessions evolved a 
formula which for a time seemed satisfactory to both those 
who clamored for peace by agreement and those who demand- 
ed repudiation of the formula, "no annexation and no indem- 
nities." In this position Dr. von Hollweg was backed by the 
Emperor. 

The advent of the Crown Prince upon the scene — sum- 
moned by his imperial father to share the deliberations affect- 
ing the future of the dynasty — seems to have changed entire- 
ly the position with regard to the Imperial Chancellor. The 
Crown Prince at once took a leading part in the discussions 
with the party leaders, and his ancient hostility toward Dr. 
von Bethmann-Hollweg, coupled with his notorious dislike for 
political reform, undoubtedly precipitated the Chancellor's 
resignation. 

APPOINTMENT OF DR. GEORG MICHAELIS, 

The resignation of Dr. von Hollweg was followed by the 
appointment of Dr. Georg Michaelis, Prussian Under Secre- 
tary of Finance and Food Commissioner. 

The fall of Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg removed 
the last of the statesmen who were in charge of the great 
Powers of Europe at the beginning of the war, and brought 
to an end a career which in successful playing of both ends 
against the middle was almost without parallel in recent 
history. 

Chancellor von Bethmann-Hollweg, an aristocrat and 
personal friend of the Emperor, stood out strongly against 
democratic agitation before the war, and at times was sharply 
outspoken in his defiance of socialism and his rejection of any 
move toward making the Chancellor and his subordinates, the 
other Ministers, responsible to the Reichstag. Yet in the early 
stages of the war he became known as a moderate, and it has 
been generally accepted that his influence was usually em- 



374 A GERMAN CRISIS. 

ployed against the breaking of relations with America and 
ruthless submarine warfare. 

PRESERVES A JUDICIOUS BALANCE. 

When the opposition of the parties favoring the most des- 
perate measures became too strong for him, he conceded a little 
ground, taking up a middle position in which he balanced him- 
self for a long time against both the Conservative Junkers and 
the National Liberal trust magnates on the one side and the 
radical Socialists on the other. Neither side could claim him; 
neither could interpret his ambiguous utterances as support of 
its policies, and between the antagonisms of the two he main- 
tained his position until at last he was overthrown by the attack 
of Erzberger, leader of the more liberal wing of the Catholic 
party, the traditional holders of the middle ground. 

Bethmann-Hollweg's agility was demonstrated by the 
fact that he survived Asquith and Grey, Viviani, Sazonoff, 
Berchtold, Salandra, Jagow, and all the rest of the statesmen 
who were in power in Europe in August, 1914. 

In personality the Chancellor was studious, scholarly and 
pleasant, lacking the brilliance of his predecessor, Von Bue- 
low, but generally regarded as one who was if anything too 
mild rather than too severe. 

Dr. Georg Michaelis, the successor to Hollweg, was the 
first commoner to be appointed to that high office, without even 
a "von" before his name. 

The son of a Prussian official, he was born on September 
8, 1857, in Haynan, Silesia. He received a university educa- 
tion, making the law his profession. In 1879 he became a court 
referee in Berlin, and in 1884 was attached to the District At- 
torney's office in that city. Several years later he went as pro- 
fessor of law and political economy to the University of Tokio. 

Returning to Germany in 1889, he was chosen District 
Attorney for Berlin. His services won much praise and he 
was afterward sent by the government as an official in the pro- 



A GEEMAN CKISIS. 375 

visional government at Trevas, Germany. In 1897 he was 
transferred to Westphalia, where he was Chief Councilor for 
the government there. 

In 1900 he was made Provisional President of Liebnitz 
and in 1902 First Privy Councilor in Breslau. His work 
there won him an appointment as Under Secretary of State in 
the Department of Finance, which post he held in connection 
with his work as Food Commissioner. 

Doctor Michaelis was selected for the post of Prussian 
Food Commissioner in February, 1917, after all efforts of 
Adolph von Batocki's organization — the food regulation board 
—had failed to lay hands on large supplies of grain, potatoes 
and other produce which the Prussian landlords were holding 
for the fattening of cattle and swine instead of making them 
available for general consumption. 

GOVERNMENT ORDERS DISREGARDED. 

The orders of Herr Batocki and the Central Government 
for the surrender of these supplies were disregarded or evaded 
at least, if not, as charged in Germany, with the actual assis- 
tance and support of the reactionary Prussian Minister of 
Agriculture, Baron von Schorlemer. 

Doctor Michaelis was eventually selected as Food Con- 
troller as the result of an agreement between von Bethmann- 
Hollweg and the military authorities as a fearless, determined 
official, who would execute his mission without fear or favor 
and produce results if such were possible. The selection was 
justified. 

The conditions in Germany which marked the ascendancy 
of the Crown Prince in the deliberations of the Imperial Gov- 
ernment and brought about the upheaval in the Ministry are 
the logical result of the system under which the country is 
ruled. 

There is, in the mind of the public generally, a theory that 
Germany with its Bundesrath and Reichstag has a govern- 



376 A GERMAN CRISIS. 

merit akin to that of England and even the United States, but 
the impression is an erroneous one. It is true that Germany 
has a dual system of government and independent state sov- 
ereignties. There is, however, nothing democratic about the 
system. 

To begin with, the Kaiser is a constitutional monarch in 
his capacity as German Emperor, but as King of Prussia he is 
a self-appointed and arrogant ruler — all that he advertises 
himself to be in the way of a God-chosen ruler. 

STATUS OF GERMAN SOVEREIGNTY. 

To understand the difference in relationship between the 
King of Prussia and the German Emperor it is necessary to 
realize that the German constitution describes the Emperor 
thus: "The presidency of the Union belongs to the King of 
Prussia, who bears the title of German Emperor." On the 
other hand the King of Prussia, who happens to be the Kaiser, 
has his right to rule by birth. When the first king was crowned, 
about 1701, he placed the crown upon his own head, and that 
right has descended to King William. But as German Em- 
peror the duties of the Kaiser are as clearly defined as those 
of the ruler of a modern democracy. 

The difference between the Kingdom and the Empire is 
that the German Empire is a creation of sovereign states, ruled 
over by German Grand Dukes, Princes, and whatnot, who 
trace their lineage back to the days when might was right, and 
who won their power to rule by defeating their fellow men. 
At one time there were several hundred of these ruling princes. 
When Napoleon got through in Germany there were about 
twenty-two left. The German Empire today consists of these 
twenty-two states, and three free cities, comprising in all a 
group of twenty-five communities. It is a bond or association. 
It consists, in fact, of the twenty-five communities, of which 
it is composed, and represented by twenty-five kings, dukes, 
princes, etc., and not by the 65,000,000 population of the com- 



A GERMAN CRISIS. 377 

munities themselves. The sovereignty rests with the princes 
of the several states, who have bestowed a fixed power upon 
the Kaiser. As Emperor his office dates back to 1871. 

The legislative machinery which has been devised for the 
use of these German sovereigns consists of the Bundesrath and 
the Reichstag. Sometimes the Bundesrath is likened to our 
Senate, or to the hereditary English House of Lords, while 
the Reichstag is compared to the House of Representatives or 
the House of Commons. But comparisons are odious. 

THE BUNDESRATH. 

The Bundesrath is an assembly in which the German 
kings, grand dukes, dukes, princes, etc., come together (by 
proxy) to direct the affairs of the Empire. Each of these sov- 
ereigns sends a specified number of delegates, in accordance 
with the provisions of the constitution. Thus the Kaiser, as 
the King of Prussia, sends seventeen delegates, while the King 
of Bavaria sends six. The 'total number of delegates is fifty- 
eight, so right in the beginning the Kaiser has a pretty good 
representation. 

The delegations in the Bundesrath vote en masse — that is 
the "unit rule" prevails. The seventeen delegates from Prus- 
sia must vote as instructed by the Kaiser, and if there chanced 
to be but one member present he still would cast seventeen 
votes for the delegation. The members of the Bundesrath are 
referred to quite frequently as ambassadors. There is no need 
for discussion in the body since the delegations vote, in any 
event, as a unit. 

The power of the German Bundesrath is, however, aston- 
ishing. Usually the lower house is supposed to be the one in 
which originates legislation, such as finance, affecting the peo- 
ple. But in Germany it is the Bundesrath which has the power 
to tax, and the lower chamber, the Reichstag, merely has the 
vetoing power. 



378 A GERMAN CRISIS. 

This makes the taxing power in Germany primarily the 
privilege of the crown. 

The financial program is prepared by the Chancellor, who 
is the direct representative of the Kaiser, and responsible only 
to him. In other governments members of the ministry are 
appointed by the legislative bodies, but the Chancellor is per- 
sonally named by the Kaiser, and is not even a member of the 
Reichstag. He has the right, however, to address this body, as 
the privilege of a member of the Bundesrath of which, as the 
personal representative of the Kaiser, he is the presiding 
officer. 

Since the Bundesrath, as already shown, practically con- 
trols the German Empire, and the King of Prussia, with his 
seventeen votes in the Bundesrath holds sway in that body, it is 
easy to see how the Kaiser is the dominating figure in the Ger- 
man Empire. 

THE KAISER'S DUAL PREROGATIVE. 

A unique provision of the German constitution is that 
fourteen votes in the Bundesrath can defeat any proposed 
amendment, and since the Kaiser controls seventeen votes, as 
King of Prussia, besides several others, he has a voting 
strength which can block any attempt to change the regime. 
Also, as King of Prussia, he can instruct his Chancellor to 
prepare laws to be introduced in the Bundesrath. 

It is the power which the Kaiser possesses, as the King of 
Prussia, which gives him his control as the German Emperor. 
Prussia is the largest of the German states, and when the 
Kaiser, as King of Prussia, says that he is master in Prussia, 
he speaks the truth. 

There is a ministry in Prussia, and the head of this body 
is usually the same person who occupies the position of Im- 
perial Chancellor, and the Kaiser appoints this Minister as well 
as his associates, whom he can remove without reference to the 
Ministry as a body. There are two chambers in Prussian Min- 



A GERMAN CRISIS. 379 

istry commonly known as the House of Peers, and the House 
of Representatives. 

Just to give the King of Prussia a little more control, he 
has the right to appoint all the members of the House of Peers, 
and also to designate the number. The House of Represen- 
tatives, on the face of it, is a popular body, because the members 
are supposed to be elected by universal suffrage. The tax- 
payers vote for representation in this chamber, but they do not 
vote directly nor on equal terms. 

Members of the House of Representatives are chosen by 
an electoral college, and several hundred of these colleges are 
selected at each election. Though taxpayers vote for the elec- 
tors, all the votes do not have the same relative value. The 
taxpayers whose combined taxes represent one-third of the 
whole amount of taxes in an electoral district choose one-third 
of the members from that district to the House. Those who 
pay the next one-third of the taxes choose another third of the 
electors, and the remaining body of voters choose the last third. 



CHAPTER XXIII 

UNCLE SAM AND THE NEUTRALS. 

President Wilson Puts Embaego on Food Shipments— Scandinavian Countries 
Furnishing Supplies to Germany Inspires Order — The Difficult Position 
of Norway, Denmark, Holland and Switzerland. 

WHEN America first declared its intentions there were in 
the United States thousands who held to the theory that 
"America in War" simply meant that we should shut 
ourselves within our borders, perhaps furnish supplies to the 
Allied forces, lend money to England, France, Belgium and 
Russia, use our navy to protect our merchant shipping and go 
about our business, leaving the fighting to the forces joined in 
conflict against Germany. 

They were disabused when the English and French Com- 
mission and the representatives of Belgium and Russia made 
it apparent that it would be necessary for America to actually 
raise a fighting army and General Pershing was sent to France. 
But they learned, too, that mobilizing the forces of the country 
and waging warfare were not simple matters. The truth was 
brought home that the whole nation must fight; that it must 
use its brains, its money, its resources of every sort, its whole 
power, both in an offensive and in a defensive way. 

Xot only must its' soldiers and sailors face the guns of the 
Teutons, but the machinery of government must be used to 
bring the arrogant Hohenzollerns to their knees. Some start- 
ling things were discovered, and the brains of the diplomatic 
force of the government were put to the test. International 
problems arose which were never before encountered in the 
history of nations. 

England, with its blockade against Germany, and Ger- 
many with its submarine warfare against British and neutral 
shipping, developed problems which had to be solved relative 

380 



UNCLE SAM AND THE NEUTRALS. 381 

to keeping Germany from getting supplies which would en- 
able her to withstand the siege, and also as to the sending of 
supplies to England, Belgium, France and Russia, and par- 
ticularly to our own forces fighting with the Allies in France. 
A BIG FACTOR IN WAR. 

Unfortunate as it may seem, one of the biggest factors in 
waging successful war is to prevent the enemy from getting 
food supplies. It is a frequently repeated truism that "an 
army travels on its stomach," and in the pleas for conservation 
and efficient management the leaders in every country declared 
frequently that "the war would be won by the last loaf of 
bread," or that it was not a question of ammunition, but of 
wheat. 

One of the serious problems which the government was 
therefore called to face within a very short period after the 
American troops were first landed in France was that of deal- 
ing with the food situation, both at home and abroad. At that 
time the German U-boats had sunk merchant ships having a 
total of more than 5,000,000 tonnage, and the food situation 
was precarious in the Allied countries. Germany, on the other 
hand, because of long preparation for the struggle, coupled 
with efficient management and practices, was more largely 
independent of other countries. 

At this time it was learned that Germany was securing 
large quantities of foodstuffs through the medium of some of 
the neutral countries. America was, therefore, called upon to 
take steps to prevent the Germans getting supplies from this 
country, through the intermediary of Holland and the Scandi- 
navian countries. As a result the government placed an em- 
bargo on a long list of articles including fuel, oils, grains, 
meats and fodder. The embargo, which was made effective by 
a proclamation of President Wilson, forbade the carrying of 
such supplies as were mentioned from the United States or its 
territorial possessions to neutral countries. 



382 UNCLE SAM AND THE NEUTRALS. 

The purpose of the embargo was not to prevent the neu- 
tral countries from securing foodstuffs from America for their 
own consumption, but to prevent their reselling such supplies 
at a profit to Germany. The position of the government was 
made plain in the statement of President Wilson, who said: 

DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN NEEDS. 

"It is obviously the duty of the United States in liberating 
any surplus products over and above our own domestic needs 
to consider first the necessities of all the nations engaged in 
war against the central empires. As to neutral nations, how- 
ever, we also recognize our duty. The government does not 
wish to hamper them. On the contrary, it wishes and intends, 
by all fair and equitable means, to co-operate with them in their 
difficult task of adding from our available surpluses to their 
own domestic supply and of meeting their pressing necessities 
or deficits. In considering the deficits of food supplies, the 
government means only to fulfill its obvious obligation to as- 
sure itself that neutrals are husbanding their own resources, 
and that our supplies will not become available, either directly 
or indirectly, to feed the enemy." 

While the conservation of our resources had a great deal 
to do with the issuing of the embargo, the action was partly 
taken as the result of information lodged by England that 
Holland, Sweden and Norway had been supplying Germany 
and her allies with food, despite the latter's hostile action in 
sinking ships owned by the neutrals. The government made 
an investigation and discovered that the shipment to these neu- 
tral countries- had become abnormally large. It was reported, 
particularly, that many Holland business men had become 
fabulously wealthy by trading in the supplies which came from 
America, and which they resold to Germany. 

The embargo became operative under a method of license 
procedure, so that all shipments could be watched by the gov- 
ernment authorities. The order compelled all persons seeking 



UNCLE SAM AND THE NEUTRALS. 383 

to export goods to make application for a license to the Secre- 
tary of Commerce, or bureaus designated in various parts of 
the country. 

In support of the contentions that the neutral countries 
were supplying Germany, Great Britain furnished the Gov- 
ernment with the following table as representing the minimum 
of food exports from Scandinavia and Holland to Germany 
in 1916: Butter, 82,600 metric tons; meat, 115,800 tons; pork 
products, 68,800 tons; condensed milk, 70,000 tons; fish, 407 
tons ; cheese, 80,500 tons ; eggs, 46,400 tons ; potato meal, 179,- 
500 tons; coffee, 58,500 tons; fruit, 74,000 tons; sugar, 12,000 
tons; vegetables, 215,000. 

These figures are most impressive, it is asserted, in rela- 
tion to fats, the scarcest thing in Germany. Fat, it is claimed, 
is the only food seriously lacking now in the diet of the Ger- 
man people. Imports of this food, the British declare, furnish 
one-fourth of the daily German fat ration. 

NATIONS WHO SUFFER FROM EMBARGO. 

There are five neutral countries whose positions were any- 
thing but enviable during the war, and it is perhaps worth 
interpolating a little something about them at this particular 
point. Norway, Sweden, Holland, Denmark and Switzerland 
were the neutrals at the time the embargo was placed on 
foodstuffs. 

Switzerland, as all the world knows, is one of the most 
picturesque countries in Europe, and is a republic in the west 
central part of the continent, bounded on the north by Baden, 
Wurtemburg and Bavaria; on the east by the Tyrol, on the 
south by Italy and on the west by France. There is no na- 
tional tongue, three languages being spoken within the bound- 
aries of the republic. Where it comes in contact with the 
French frontier, the French language is largely spoken ; while 
Italian is the language spoken in the southern part, where it 
is bounded by Italy. In the northern section the German 



384 UNCLE SAM AND THE NEUTRALS. 

language is spoken. The country has an area of 15,992 square 
miles. 

In the main, Switzerland is mountainous, the chief val- 
ley being that of the Rhone, in the southern part. The most 
level tracts are in the northwestern section, where there are a 
number of mountain-locked valleys. Mountain slopes com- 
prise about two-fifths of the area of the country, and prac- 
tically all of the rivers are rapid and unnavigable. The forests 
are extensive and consist of large trees. Cereals, along with 
hemp, flax and tobacco, are raised, and the pasture lands are 
fertile and abundant. Hence, the dairy products, as well as 
hides and tallow, are produced in profusion. Fruits of the 
hardier varieties grow well and profitably. 

A FEDERAL UNION. 

The republic consists of twenty-two States or Cantons 
which form a Federal Union, although each is virtually inde- 
pendent in matters of politics. The Swiss Constitution, re- 
modelled in 1848, vests the ruling executive and legislative 
authority in a Diet of two houses — a State Council and a 
National Council. The former consists of 44 members — two 
from each Canton — and corresponds in its functional action 
with the United States Senate. The National Council is the 
more purely representative body, and is composed of 128 mem- 
bers elected triennially by popular suffrage. Both chambers 
combine and form what is called the Federal Assembly. 

The chief executive power is exercised by the so-called 
Federal Council, or Bundesgericht, which is elected trienni- 
ally. Its governing officers are the President and Vice Presi- 
dent of the republic. International and inter-cantonal ques- 
tions are discussed before and adjudicated by the Bundes- 
gericht, which serves as a high court of appeal. The army 
consists of 142,999 regulars and 91,809 landwehr; total, 231,- 
808 men of all arms. Every adult citizen is de facto liable 



UNCLE SAM AND THE NEUTRALS. 385 

to military service, and military drill and discipline are taught 
in all the schools. The Protestant faith forms the ruling form 
of religion in 15 of the cantons, Roman Catholicism prevailing 
in the rest. Education is well diffused by numerous colleges 
and schools of a high grade ; and its upper branches are cared 
for at the three universities of Berne, Basle and Zurich. 

Denmark, whose home possessions comprise 14,789 square 
miles, is, by the way, barely one-half the size of Scotland. It 
consists of a peninsular portion called Jutland, and an exten- 
sive archipelago lying east of it. It has a number of territorial 
possessions in the Atlantic ocean, among them the islands of 
Iceland, Greenland and the Faroe islands in the north. 
GERMAN AMBITION FRUSTRATED. 

One of its possessions in the West Indies was purchased 
by the United States almost at the time America entered the 
war, and created a situation which was not calculated to inspire 
the friendship of Germany for the little country, since it was 
intimated that Germany would liked to have had the island 
for a base. The islands cost the United States about $25,000,- 
000. Including the colonial possessions, the total area of the 
Danish possessions is 80,000 square miles, the population be- 
ing 2,726,000 persons. 

Copenhagen is the capital, the other chief cities being 
Odense, Aarhuus, Aalborg, Randers and Horsens. For ad- 
ministrative purposes Denmark is divided into 18 provinces 
or districts, besides the capital, nine of these making up Jut- 
land and the other nine comprising the island possessions. On 
the south Denmark is bounded by Germany and the Baltic, 
on the west it is washed by the North Sea; while to the north 
lies Norway, separated by the Skagerrack, and on the east 
lies Sweden, separated by the Cattegat and the Sound. 

The line of seaboard is irregular and broken, and the low, 
flat nature of the country necessitates the construction of dykes, 
in many places, in order to prevent the ocean from making 

H B— 25 



386 UNCLE SAM AND THE NEUTKALS. 

inroads. There are few rivers, and these are small and not 
of value commercially. Timber is not abundant, and minerals 
are scarce and of little value. The climate is generally moist 
and cold, fogs are frequent and the winters generally severe. 
Cereals, potatoes, wool and dairy products are the principal 
products. Cattle raising is carried on extensively, much of 
the beef being exported. 

The Danes, physically, are sturdy, and represent the 
truest physical characteristics of Scandinavian types. The 
people are brave, sober and industrious, and the sailors from 
this country are among the leading navigators of the world. 
The government is a constitutional monarchy, with the execu- 
tive power vested in a king and a ministry, who are held 
responsible to the Rigsdag, which is the parliament. 

LANDSTHING AND FOLKSTHING. 

This parliament consists of a Senate, or Landsthing, and 
a lower house, or Folksthing. The Evangelical Lutheran 
Church is the State religion, but all other persuasions are fully 
and freely tolerated. Education is compulsory, and is largely 
disseminated. The army consists of 60,000 men, while the 
navy is quite small, having a personnel of about 4000 officers 
and men. 

The authentic history dates from 1385, the year of the 
accession of Margaret, the "Semiramis of the North," and 
wearer of the triple Scandinavian crowns. The latest mon- 
arch, Frederick VIII, came to the throne in 1906. 

Holland, the most picturesque of the neutral countries, 
aside from Switzerland with its wonderful scenery, is credited 
with having profited very largely by the war. It rests along 
the North Sea and adjoins the German Empire on the east 
and borders Belgium on the South. It contains about 11 prov- 
inces, with a total area of 12,582 square miles and a popula- 
tion of about 6,000,000. 

Always one thinks of windmills, dykes, fat cattle, butter, 



UNCLE SAM AND THE NEUTRALS. 387 

eggs, ducks and green farms when Holland is mentioned, and 
it is in many respects one of the most highly developed com- 
mercial countries in the world. The country manufactures 
many articles of world-wide distribution, including chocolate, 
linens, fine damasks, pottery, chemical and pharmaceutical 
products, and Amsterdam is a center of diamond-cutting. 

It has a large mercantile marine, and was at one time a 
termendous maritime power, doing an immense trading busi- 
ness in many waters. It still has rich and extensive colonies, 
including the Dutch possessions in the East Indies, compris- 
ing the Sunda Islands, except a portion of Borneo and Eastern 
Timor, and New Guinea. Java and Madura are two of the 
richest of the group and have a population of more than 
30,000,000. There are also possessions in the West Indies and 
in South America. 

A SMALL BUT EFFICIENT ARMY. 

The Dutch army has approximately 40,000 officers and 
men and is regarded as one of the most efficient armies in the 
world of its size. There is also a colonial army in the East 
Indies with 1300 officers and 35,183 men. Its navy has 4000 
officers and men and has about 200 vessels of all sorts, none 
of them of the modern dreadnought or super-dreadnought type. 

The history of the rich little country is one of the most 
interesting in literature. It was originally part of the Empire 
of Charlemagne. Subsequently, it became divided into a num- 
ber of petty principalities, and by heritage became a posses- 
sion of the Austrian monarchy. In the long struggle against 
the Spanish power it became one of the Seven United Prov- 
inces. The country made rapid progress, and during the 17th 
century withstood the power of Louis the XIV of France, 
but later was overrun by the French, and finally in 1806 was 
made a kingdom by Napoleon, in favor of his brother Louis. 
Ujnder the Treaty of Paris Belgium and Holland were united 
to form the Kingdom of the Netherlands, and this arrange- 



388 UNCLE SAM AND THE NEUTRALS. 

ment remained until 1830, when Belgium broke away. Hol- 
land attempted to reduce the revolting province by force, but 
the powers intervened and an adjustment was made. The 
last King was William, III, who died in 1890, leaving his 
daughter Wilhelmina, then but 10 years old, Queen. 

Of the neutral countries none endured more than heroic 
Norway. With a long coast line practically undefended and 
with the full force of the German navy anchored but a few 
hours away, and a none too friendly country on her land bor- 
der, possessing an army greater than her own, Norway's posi- 
tion was extremely difficult. 

Had she flung herself into the war with the Allies when 
the breach came she would have been of little help to them, 
for she would have placed them in the position of being called 
upon to help defend her long coast line. It is probable also 
that a break with Germany would have let loose the Swedish 
army on the side of the Teutons. 

BETWEEN TWO FIRES. 

The little country was between two fires, and she suffered 
great strain. In the first place, while Norway attempted to 
maintain her export trade and her shipping, the Allies in- 
spected her import invoices and subjected her to much an- 
noyance, while Germany, without provocation, ruthlessly at- 
tacked her merchant ships and sent many of them to the bot- 
tom of the ocean. 

There were intimations that Germany's real intent was 
to precipitate a rupture which would justify her attack on the 
little country, which she would be able to subdue with ease 
and seize the rugged coast and ports of vantage. But Nor- 
way remained neutral, and was not at all pleased with the 
embargo placed upon shipments by the United States, though 
it developed that the restrictions would not prevent the coun- 
try from getting its share of grain and other supplies from 
America. 



UNCLE SAM AND THE NEUTRALS. 389 

Norway is the western portion of the Scandinavian penin- 
sula, and has an area of about 125,000 square miles. Its 
northern coast is washed by the cold waters of the Arctic 
Ocean, and against the northeast is Lapland, while Sweden 
bounds it on the east and the famed North Sea on the south 
and the broad Atlantic on the west. 

The rugged country is separated from Sweden by the 

Kiolen, or the Great Scandinavian chain of mountains, and 

in the hills and mountains are found the wonderful Norway 

spruce and fir trees familiar in commerce. Its fisheries and 

shipbuilding industry are also of great importance in the world 

of business. 

DEMOCRACY OF NORWAY, 

The constitution of Norway is one of the most Democratic 
in all Europe. Although a monarchy, its executive and legis- 
lative power is vested in the parliament, called the Storthing, 
and the King has merely a nominal command over the army 
and navy, with power to appoint the governor-general only. 
The latter has a limited right to veto acts of the parliament. 
Hereditary nobility was abolished in 1821. 

Under the treaty of Vienna in 1814, and following the 
defeat of Napoleon, it was arranged that Denmark must give 
up Norway, and the two countries were united under the 
Swedish Crown. Norway demanded a separate consular ser- 
vice in 1905, and the Storthing declared the union with Sweden 
at an end. Prince Charles of Denmark then became King, 
reigning as Haakon VII. 

The country has a population of 2,340,000, and her full 
military force mobilized for war is only 110,000 men. 

Sweden, Norway's next-door neighbor on the Scandina- 
vian peninsula, in contradistinction to the latter, is a consti- 
tutional monarchy, with extraordinary powers vested in the 
King, who is assisted in the administration of affairs by a 
council of ministers. The Diet, or legislature, consists of two 
chambers, or estates, both elected by the people. 



390 UNCLE SAM AND THE NEUTRALS. 

Like Norway, the country is very rugged. Lapland and 
Finland are at the northeast, and on the east is the Gulf of 
Bothnia and the Baltic, and on the south the Baltic, the Sound 
and the Cattegat. It joins Nfarway on the west. Its area is 
172,875 square miles, and its coast line is more than 1400 miles 
long. 

Sweden, while it does not have a first-class navy, possesses 
a score of armored vessels of small displacement, besides tor- 
pedo boats, destroyers, etc., and has an army of 40,000 at 
peace strength. The country is particularly rich in minerals, 
and some of the finest iron ore in the world comes from its 
mines. Nickel, lead, cobalt, alum and sulphur are also pro- 
duced in large quantities; while it gives to the world, too, 
immense quantities of lumber and larger quantities of hemp, 
flax and hops. 

The reigning monarch is King Gustavus V, who suc- 
ceeded his father, Oscar II, who died in 1907. The population 
of the country is about 5,000,000. 

Of these neutrals, both Holland and Switzerland did a 
great deal for the suffering Belgians when Germany pounded 
through the country of King Albert, sending money for the 
relief of the sufferers and offering refugees shelter. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 
THE ACTIONS OF THE WAR. 

From Bosnia to Flanders — Marne the Turning Point of the Conflict — The 
Conquests of Servia and Rumania — The Fall of Bagdad — Russia's 
Women Soldiers — America's Conscripts. 

THE end of August, 1917, found twenty-one nations in a 
state of war and five in what might be termed a condition 
of modified neutrality, with nearly 40,000,000 sum- 
moned to arms and 5,000,000 killed in bitter warfare. 

This was the fiery reflection of the shots which caused the 
death of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, of Austria, in the 
quiet little town of Serajevo, the capital of Bosnia, in June, 
1914. And so, with their backs to the wall, Austria-Hungary, 
Germany, Turkey and Bulgaria faced Servia, Russia, France, 
Belgium, Great Britain, Montenegro, Japan, Italy, Portugal, 
Rumania, the United States, Cuba, Brazil, Greece, Siam, 
China and little Liberia, while Guatemala, Panama, Haiti, 
Uruguay and Bolivia stood by in a position of neutrality, but 
for the most part indicating a willingness to help the Allies. 

And in those elapsed three years after the Bosnia tragedy 
an Emperor of Austria had died ; a Czar had stepped from his 
throne, and a King had been compelled to toss aside his crown. 
Prime Ministers and Ministers of War in all of the principal 
countries, who held the confidence of their peoples when the 
war started, were no more. 

Cabinets had been dissolved and new ones set up, states- 
men brushed aside and commanders of the war forces com- 
pelled to step out that others might carry on the battles. 

Though it was Austria's ultimatum to Servia which pre- 
cipitated the world-wide struggle, it was Germany that took 
the first step and crossed the French frontier with its armed 

forces. After Servia refused to accede to all of the demands 

391 



392 THE ACTIONS OF THE WAR. 

of Austria-Hungary and war had formally been declared by 
the latter country, Russia began a partial mobilization of her 
armed forces, since she had given warning that she would 
extend protection to Servia. Germany retaliated by calling 
together her warring forces and declaring war on the Czar; 
France came to Russia's aid. Then when Belgium refused to 
permit the German army to pass through the country and 
Germany disregarded international treaties and invaded the 
territory, Great Britain declared war upon the Kaiser, and 
Montenegro aligned itself with the Allies. 

GERMANY'S DESIGNS ON PARIS- 

Germany's action and subsequent events prove that the 
war lords had planned to capture Paris by a swift attack from 
the north, before France could gather her forces to resist and 
before Russia was prepared to assist. Belgium, however, 
proved a stumbling block. The natives, battling like demons 
for the protection of their homes and honor, held the Teuton 
hordes at Liege for several weeks, or until the famous forti- 
fications there were reduced, and then the terrible machine of 
the Germans swept forward until the soldiers were within fif- 
teen miles of the French capital. 

It was here, within a few hours' march of Paris, that the 
French and Allied troops showed their real metal. General 
Joffre met the German hordes beside the River Marne and 
with his troops began the battle which was to guarantee the 
security of the French capital and result in the routing of the 
army of Von Kluck, regarded as the pick of the Prussian 
forces. In the famed battle of the Marne there were fought a 
number of separate engagements, which have been termed the 
battles of Meaux, Sezanne, Vitry and Argonne. 

The German forces were driven back step by step to the 
north bank of the Aisne, where the army was able to entrench 
itself and the Germans and the Allied forces began digging 



THE ACTIONS OF THE WAR. 393 

themselves into the ground in a manner that had never before 
been practised in warfare. 

While Germany was striking at France, the Russians had 
invaded Austria, capturing Tarnapol and Lemberg and in- 
vesting the great fortress of Prezemsyl. Austria was com- 
pelled to call upon Germany for assistance and four German 
army corps, under Von Hindenburg, were drawn from East 
Prussia and went to the rescue. Instead of trying to stem the 
progress of the Russians, he made a counter offensive with 
Warsaw as the objective. Russia was compelled for a time 
to abandon its positions and retreat, and Von Hindenburg got 
within seven miles of Warsaw before the Russians rode down 
upon his forces with 100,000 horsemen and compelled retreat. 
Von Hindenburg's strategy had, however, been successful, and 
his action on the Eastern front at this time marked the first 
step toward his pre-eminence as a military commander. 

BRITISH AND GERMAN FORCES COMPARED. 

During 1915 the Allied forces were able to do little more 
than hold their positions. Lord Kitchener had builded up a 
British volunteer army in which great hopes were placed, but 
in the matter of offensive military tactics they could not cope 
with the formidable German forces, nor had the Allies devel- 
oped an offensive which would win without terrible sacrifice, 
and in the encounters the very flower of Great Britain's man- 
hood, as well as thousands of the best fighting men of France, 
were lost to the world forever. It was in this year, when Ger- 
many made use of asphyxiating gas for the first time, that 
Canada received its most stinging blow. The famous Princess 
Pats, the finest military body of the Dominion, was practically 
annihilated, and in the final formidable attack of the year made 
by the French against the Germans in September, the latter 
were driven back several miles, but at a cost of more than 
100,000 French lives. 



394 THE ACTIONS OF THE WAR. 

In this year, too, the Germans succeeded in capturing 
much territory and a number of valuable positions which had 
been taken by the Russians, and the combined forces of Von 
Hindenburg and Von Mackensen finally conquered Poland. 
Warsaw was evacuated in July, and in August Prince Leopold 
led the Bavarian into the Polish capital. On August 19 the 
great stronghold of Kovno fell, and the conquest was made 
complete with the surrender of Brest-Litovsk. 

CONQUEST OF SERVIA. 

The conquest of Servia by the Teutons also marked the 
year 1915. Among the first shots of the war were those fired 
by the Austrians when they bombarded Belgrade, the capital 
of Servia, and made an attempt to invade the country. The 
Servians and Montenegrins almost annihilated Austrian troops 
which attempted to cross the Danube into Servia, and the Aus- 
trian invasion fell. But the combined Austro-German forces 
invaded the country later as part of the Prussian program to 
conquer all the territory from the Baltic to the Bosporus. The 
Entente Allies made an effort to save the little country by land- 
ing troops at Salonica, but it was too late. Just before winter 
set in, the Austro-German forces and the Bulgarian forces, 
invading from opposite sides, met, and the conquest of the 
country was complete. 

It was in 1915, too, that what is conceded to have been 
one of the most disastrous and futile campaigns of the war was 
attempted by England. Constantinople was to be captured 
and the Turks crushed, with a view of opening communication 
with Russia by way of the Black Sea. The British fleet was 
sent out to bombard the Dardanelles, and the now famous 
Anzacs — Australian and New Zealand troops — were landed 
on the peninsula of Gallipoli to strike at the Turkish capital 
from behind. The campaign was waged through the summer, 
but with little hope of success, and finally abandoned after the 



THE ACTIONS OF THE WAR. 395 

British had lost more than 100,000 of its most daring, hard- 
fighting and loyal Colonial soldiers. 

After this came "Verdun" — that conflict in which France 
won immortal glory and the German's attack upon the French 
fortress town of Verdun was successfully repulsed. The battle 
raged for four months, beginning in February, 1916. The 
German troops, with the German Crown Prince in command, 
captured two forts close to Verdun, but little by little the 
French troops drove them back, and finally, in command of 
General Nivelle, with General Petain looking after the de- 
fense of Verdun, the French, co-operating with the British, 
made an attack on the Somme, and the Germans were com- 
pelled to abandon the Verdun offensive. In the Verdun cam- 
paign the Germans lost more than 500,000 men, while the 
French lost not half the number. 

RUSSIA'S CONQUEST OF ARMENIA. 

Russia's conquest of Armenia was one of the features of 
1916. The troops under General Brussiloff renewed their en- 
deavors in Galicia and for several months made great progress ; 
then Rumania entered the war and the Russian forces in Galicia 
slowed down. In Caucasus, however, Russian troops gained 
Erzerum, one of the Turk fortresses, and captured the seaport 
of Trebizond, practically gaining Armenia. Like the Germans 
in retreat from Flanders, the Turks practiced unspeakable 
horrors. Their cruelties were such as to almost exterminate 
the race. 

The tragedy of the Balkans in 1916 was Rumania. With 
an army of more than half a million men, she entered the war 
with the approval of the Entente and entered Transylvania. 
But the Germans began a counter-attack in Dobrudja, and the 
Rumanians were compelled to withdraw some of their forces 
from Transylvania. The German commander then threw his 
forces across the remaining Rumanians and drove them across 
the border, after which he swung his own troops through the 



396 THE ACTIONS OF THE WAR. 

mountain passes into Rumania. The two German forces in- 
vading Rumania met at Bucharest, and the Rumanian capital 
was occupied. 

Another fiasco was that of the British expeditionary force 
which was sent from India by way of the Persian Gulf and up 
the Tigris river to Bagdad. General Townsend succeeded in 
getting within 15 miles of Bagdad, but he was defeated by a 
superior Turkish force and compelled to fall back to Kut-el- 
Amara. Here his inadequate force, lacking medical and trans- 
port facilities, was fairly starved out before he was relieved. 
He was finally compelled to surrender the last week in April, 
1916. 

Little more than a year after the collapse of this expedi- 
tion, however, the famous old city of Bagdad was captured by 
the English after a well-directed campaign under General 
Maude. 

ITALY'S HELP TO THE ALLIES. 

Italy, having begun active warfare with the Allies in 1915, 
waged war along the Austrian border, compelling the Austro- 
German forces to concentrate a larger body of troops for duty 
on the Italian frontier, and to that extent materially assisted 
the Allies. At the same time the Xtalians fought their way 
up over the mountains and won more than 500 square miles 
of territory and took nearly 90,000 prisoners. 

The final alignment of the Greeks with the Allies marked 
the progress of affairs in the middle of 1917, when Constantine 
was forced from his throne in favor of his second son, and 
Venizelos was returned as Premier. But the entrance of the 
Greeks did not materially alter the situation. 

The two most important events of 1917 were the entrance 
of America into the conflict and the revolt in Russia, which 
caused the abdication of the Czar and turned the great country 
into a republic. The ultimate in Russia's history is still to be 
written, but the change was fraught with disaster. The people 



THE ACTIONS OF THE WAS. 397 

let free, and unaccustomed to self-government, could not be 
controlled, and the army became demoralized. 

The element which had been loyal to the Romanoffs re- 
fused to fight for liberty, and the Germans, taking advantage 
of the situation, drove the Russian troops back over the fron- 
tiers and gained all that the Russians had once taken in conflict. 
And out of this grew one of the most picturesque incidents of 
the entire war. Russian women and girls, filled with ideals 
and with a deep sense of the responsibilities which rested upon 
the nation, formed a corps, and, dressed in full military cos- 
tume, went to the front and attacked the German troops. No 
soldiers of any nation have shown more heroism, or more capa- 
bility, for the women faced the bullets, and, while they were 
being mowed down by the German guns, they urged their men 
to face the enemy and fight — fight — fight. 

BRITISH NAVY AN EFFECTIVE ASSET. 

While there have been few of the picturesque battles on 
the seas, which the world has long regarded as a necessary 
adjunct to a successful war, the work of the British Navy has 
proved through the period of the conflict to be one of the most 
powerful and effective assets of the Allied forces. Through 
the operation of the British fleet, later augmented by an Ameri- 
can war fleet, the German ships have been corked up in their 
home ports and chased from the seas. 

The first naval battle of the war was an engagement be- 
tween portions of the British squadron in the Pacific and a 
superior German force. The engagement occurred off the 
coast of Chili in November, 1915. Two British vessels were 
lost and a third badly damaged. However, a few months later, 
the German squadron, in command of Admiral von Spee, was 
met off the Falkland Islands by a second British squadron, and 
in the engagement four of the German vessels were sunk and 
a fifth damaged. This vessel was later sunk. 

The most important naval engagement was the battle of 



398 THE ACTIONS OF THE WAR. 

Jutland in May, 1916, when Admiral Beatty met a German 
fleet in the North Sea. The German boats made a dash from 
the Kiel canal and engaged the British off the coast of Den- 
mark. Both England and Germany claimed victory, the for- 
mer declaring that Germany lost eighteen ships, while the 
German Government claimed that the British lost fifteen ves- 
sels. Berlin admitted a loss of 60,720 tons and 3966 men, 
while England conceded a loss of more than 114,000 tons and 
5613 men. But the English fleet which engaged the German 
fighting ships was but a small portion of the force on guard 
outside of Helgoland and the Kiel Canal, and the effect was 
to keep the German navy from venturing forth again. 

These are the main events which had punctuated the action 
of the world's fighting machines at the close of August, 1917, 
when America was preparing to thwart the German U-boats 
in their destruction of the world's shipping, and had under 
actual call to arms more than 1,000,000 men, a minor part of 
which had been safely landed in France. 

WORLD'S AWFUL MARITIME LOSS. 

In the three months prior to August the German under- 
seas boats had sunk 464 vessels, or an average of 426,000 tons 
of shipping a month, while America, working with her fleets 
in conjunction with the British Navy to foil the submarine 
in its endeavors, was also building more than 12,000 cargo- 
carrying craft and submarine chasers with which to flood the 
traffic lanes of the sea. 

Likewise, contracts had been awarded for 10,000 flying 
machines with which to drive the "eyes of the German army," 
as the air machines are called, from the heavens. Finally, as 
the Allies in the closing days of August were driving the Ger- 
man hordes back under avalanches of shells, 629,000 of the 
youth of America, called to fight under the conscript act, were 
preparing to move to camps in a dozen different sections of the 
country to train themselves for invading foreign countries and 



THE ACTIONS OF THE WAR. 399 

facing the brutal Teutons. Likewise, some 20,000 picked men 
were training to officer these civilian forces, and half a million 
men of the National Guards of the various States, formally 
mustered into the service of the country, were moving by orders 
of the Government to points whence they would find their way 
to the side of the loyal French soldiers and the sturdy English, 
Scotch, Canadian, Australian and virile Italian fighters. 

The records of three years show that the American ambu- 
lance drivers ; daring thousands of our countrymen who fought 
with the French and English because they believed the war was 
a just one, and without compulsion; scores of Red Cross nurses, 
and aviators who hunted the Teutons in the air, all Americans, 
have had their names written high in the roster of heroes. 
Americans have always been pioneers and history makers, and 
they are making history now. 

With the approach of cold weather, and following months 
of intensive training under the direction of French and English 
soldiers, the American expeditionary forces began actual par- 
ticipation in the great world war as a unit. Previously their 
achievements were principally in connection with the French 
aviation corps and ambulance sections. 

SINKING OF FIRST AMERICAN WAR BOAT. 

The first untoward incident involving America's forces on 
land or sea was the sinking of the transport Antilles on October 
27, 1917, by a German submarine, when 67 men — officers, sea- 
men and soldiers — were lost. The vessel was returning from a 
French port after having landed troops and supplies. This 
was the first loss sustained by the United States, and the event 
brought home the seriousness of the country's participation in 
the war as no previous event had done. 

Almost immediately following this the world awoke one 
morning to learn that silently and unheralded the American 
soldiers had marched from their quarters in a French village 
to the "front" and in a slough of mud had entered the trenches, 



400 THE ACTIONS Otf THE WAR. 

and for the first time in history United States troops launched 
shells against the forces of Germany. 

The initial shot was fired by artillerists at the break of day 
on October 24, and America was formally made an active agent 
in the horrors of warfare on "No Man's Land." Ten days 
later the brave Americans, occupying a position in the trenches 
for instruction, early on the morning of Saturday, November 3, 
received their baptism of fire, and in the cause of Democracy 3 
soldiers were killed, 5 wounded and 12 captured by the Boche 
forces. 

Cut off from the main line of the Allied forces, the Ameri- 
cans were stormed under the protection of a heavy barrage fire 
by a German raiding party and engaged in a desperate hand- 
to-hand encounter. The 20 Americans, with several French 
instructors, according to official report, were pitted against 
210 picked Germans. A rain of shells from Boche guns was 
laid back of the American section so that there was no retreat. 
The lieutenant in command made a heroic attempt to reach 
the main fighting line, but was caught in the barrage fire and 
rendered unconscious from shell-shock. 

Previously American scouts had captured a German pris- 
oner — a mail runner; Lieutenant de Vere H. Harden, of the 
Signal Corps had been wounded by a bursting German shell, 
and a German gunner was reported killed by an American 
sharpshooter, as opening incidents of the skirmish. 

And so at the beginning of November, 1917, with the whole 
United States giving support to the Government in subscribing 
upwards of five billions of dollars to the second Liberty Loan, 
and all forces working to conserve food, furnish men, ships, 
ammunition, clothing and supplies to her own troops and to her 
Allies, the world found America true to traditions, battling for 
the right and giving her best that liberty might endure and the 
burden of Prussianism be lifted from humanity. 



CHAPTER XXV. 
AMEBICAN FOKCES BECOME FACTOR. 

United States Soldiers Inspired Allied Troops — Russian Government Col- 
lapses — Italian Army Falls — Allied War Council Formed — Foch Com- 
mands Allied Armies — Pershing Offers American Troops — Under Fire — 
U-Boat Bases Eaided by British. 

THE influence exerted by the actual presence of the 
American troops on the western front was soon appar- 
ent. The spirits of the English, French and Canadian 
troops were raised and the presence of the Americans was 
heralded to the world as an evidence of complete unity on the 
part of the Allies that meant ultimate death to Kaiserism. 

The advent of Uncle Sam's fighting men on the firing 
line had, however, one serious effect, viewed from the Allied 
standpoint. Germany realized that every day she delayed in 
making attack meant the strengthening of the Allied forces 
by the arrival of additional United States troops, and it was 
seen by the English and French leaders that the Kaiser would 
make an early drive to annihilate, if possible, the stubbornly 
resisting, though somewhat tired and weakened, lines opposing 
his brutal soldiery. Not for months, therefore, was it per- 
mitted the world to know anything about the numerical 
strength of the American troops sent into France. 

Simultaneously with the action of American troops in 

entering the resisting line of Allied troops on the western 

front the Austro-German troops had swept into the Italian 

plains, capturing 100,000 prisoners and upward of 1,000 guns, 

taking several towns and compelling the retreat of the Second 

and Third Italian armies. The Italian forces were opposed 

by four times their number, but it was also said that the unity 

of the Italian forces was broken by the spreading of German 

propaganda. 

26 hr ' 401 



402 AMERICAN FORCES BECOME FACTOR. 

The failure of some of the troops was shown in an official 
dispatch from Rome, in which it was stated: 

"The failure to resist on the part of some units forming 
our second army, which in cowardice retired without fighting 
or surrendered to the enemy, allowed the Austro-German 
forces to break into our left wing on the Julian front. The 
valiant efforts of other troops did not enable them to prevent 
the enemy from advancing into the sacred soil of our father- 
land. We now are withdrawing our line according to the plan 
prepared. All stores and depots in the evacuated places were 
destroyed." 

ITALIAN HEADQUARTERS CAPTURED. 

These troops were compelled to fall back along a front 
almost 125 miles long and Undine, the Italian headquarters, 
was captured. Germany had found the weakest spot in the 
Italian line and occupied about 1,000 square miles of territory 
before General Cadorna's forces were able to establish a line 
of strong defense. 

The retirement of the Italian troops was one of the most 
picturesque in the history of the war, and Germany made her 
gains at terrible cost. 

The retirement was accompanied by shielding operations 
of the rear guard, which poured a deadly fire into the advanc- 
ing columns and at the same time destroyed powder depots, 
arsenals and bridges with the double purpose of giving time 
for the withdrawal of the Italian heavy guns and of preventing 
military stores falling into the hands of the enemy. 

The Germans encountered stubborn resistance on the 
Bainsizza plateau, and heaps of enemy dead marked the lines 
of their advance. Around Globo ridge a bersaglieri brigade, 
outnumbered five to one, held back the enemy while the main 
line had an opportunity to get its retreat in motion. In one 
of the mountain passes a small village commanding the pass 



AMERICAN FORCES BECOME FACTOR. 403 

was taken and retaken eight times during desperate artillery, 
infantry and hand-to-hand fighting. 

Before the Italians were able to establish a line of resist- 
ance they were compelled to fall back to the Piave, and at some 
points to a much greater distance. Meantime the Allies rushed 
assistance to the retiring forces, and while the collapse of 
.Cadorna's line was unfortunate, it had the effect of making it 
more obvious that there should be more unity of operation 
between the Allied forces. 

Russia's republic, under the leadership of Premier Keren- 
sky, collapsing at the same moment, intensified the serious- 
ness of the Allied situation, and largely at the suggestion of 
America an Inter- Allied War Council was formed. 

REVOLT IN PETROGARD. 
Premier Kerensky called upon the United States to help 
Russia bear the burdens of conflict until the forces could be 
reorganized by the new government. Almost immediately there 
was revolt in Petrograd, and the radicals under the leadership 
of Leon Trotsky, president of the Executive Committee of the 
Petrograd Council of Soldiers' and Workmen's Delegates, 
seized the telegraph wires, the State bank and Marie Palace, 
where the preliminary parliament had suspended proceedings 
in view of the situation. 

The Workmen's and Soldiers' Delegates assumed control 
of the City of Petrograd and Kerensky was compelled to flee. 
The Winter Palace was bombarded. A General Council of the 
Soldiers' and Workmen's Delegates announced the taking over 
of government authority: 

"We plan to offer an immediate armistice of three months, 
during which elected representatives from all nations and not 
the diplomats are to settle the questions of peace," said Nikolai 
Lenine, the Maximalist leader, in a speech before the Work- 
men's and Soldiers' Congress today. 

"We offer these terms," M. Lenine added, "but we are 



404 AMERICAN FORCES BECOME FACTOR. 

willing to consider any proposals for peace, no matter from 
which side. We offer a just peace, but will not accept unjust 
terms." 

Meantime General Cadorna was relieved of command of 
the Italian armies and General Diaz put at the head of the 
Italian forces, while General Foch, chief of staff of the French 
War Ministry, and General Wilson, sub-chief of the British 
Staff, were made members of an Inter- Allied Military Com- 
mittee serving with General Cadorna to straighten out the 
Italian situation. This was the first step looking to the unify- 
ing of the Allied forces which was brought about shortly there- 
after by the formation of the Inter- Allied War Council at 
Versailles. It was chiefly at the suggestion of President Wilson 
that the War Council was called, the President issuing a stir- 
ring appeal in which he pointed out the necessity of unity of 
control, if the resources of the United States were to be of the 
greatest value to the Allied interests. 

SUPREME WAR COUNCIL. 

The Supreme War Council, which was made a permanent 
body, was composed of the Prime Minister and a member of 
the Government of each of the Great Powers whose armies 
were fighting at the front. Each Power delegated to the Su- 
preme Council a permanent military representative whose func- 
tion was to act as adviser to the Council. As the result of the 
deliberations of the War Council, and following the suggestion 
of General Pershing, General Foch was made Commander-in- 
Chief of the Allied Armies. General Foch was Commander 
of the French troops at Verdun and a recognized authority on 
military strategy. 

While the problem of solving the military phases of the 
situation was being considered by the Allied War Council the 
Russian forces under Kerensky and those under Trotzky, 
known as the Bolsheviki, clashed again and again at Petrograd, 
Moscow and other points, and the hope of the Allies as to any 



AMERICAN FORCES BECOME FACTOR. 405 

help from Russia sank. Germany entered into a peace compact 
with XJkrainia, and the hand of the Kaiser was seen in the 
Russian situation when officers of the German Army were 
reported in Petrograd in conference with the representatives 
of the various Russian factions. Russia suggested a separate 
armistice, or a separate peace, against which both the U. S. and 
France protested. 

The failure of the Russian Government to assume any 
degree of stability made it possible for the Germans to with- 
draw many troops and transfer them to the Italian and West^ 
ern Fronts. 

One result of the Allied War Council deliberations was to 
show the necessity of rapid action on the part of the United 
States and get troops into France so that they might take over 
a definite sector. While it was estimated that several hundred 
thousand Americans were in France, the necessity for a larger 
force was made apparent by the statement that 90 reserves are 
required for every 400 fighters on the line. 

DROPPED THEIR TOOLS FOR RIFLES. 

The first bitter attack in which American troops figured 
was when a company of United States engineers, caught be- 
tween crossfires, dropped their tools for rifles and joined the 
English troops in helping to repulse the Germans near 
Cambrai. 

A notable event in the progress of the war was the declara- 
tion of war upon Austria by the U. S. on Dec. 8, 1917, Con- 
gress adopting a resolution of war with but one dissenting vote. 

Events which brought the seriousness of the war home 
to America began at this point to occur rapidly. First the Tor- 
pedo Boat Destroyer Jacob Jones was sunk in the war zone 
when nearly 30 men were reported lost. This was followed 
shortly by a report to the War Department that 17 Americans 
caught in the crossfire by the Germans at Cambrai were missing 
or killed. The report of the sinking of the Alcedo, a patrol 



406 AMERICAN FORCES BECOME FACTOR. 

boat, with the loss of several officers, was also received, as was 
that of the sinking of the U. S. Destroyer "Chauncey" rammed 
in a collision, when two officers and eighteen men were lost. 

One of the high spots of the war and one of the notable 
events in the history of the world, was the surrender of the City 
of Jerusalem to the British on Saturday, December 8, 1917. 
Gen. Allenby entered the famed city and established his troops 
on the ancient Jerico Road. 

The capture of Jerusalem by the British forces marked the 
end, with two brief interludes, of more than 1200 years' posses- 
sion of the seat of the Christian religion by the Mohammedans. 
For 673 years the Holy City had been in disputed ownership of 
the Turks, the last Christian ruler of Jerusalem being the Ger- 
man Emperor, Frederick, whose short-lived domination lasted 
from 1229 to 1244. 

THE FALL OF JERUSALEM. 

Apart from its connection with the campaign being waged 
against Turkey by the British in Mesopotamia, the fall of 
Jerusalem marked the definite collapse of the long-protracted 
efforts of the Turks to capture the Suez Canal and invade 
Egypt. Almost the first move made by Turkey after her 
entrance into the war was a campaign against Egypt across the 
great desert of the Sinai Peninsula. In November, 1914, a 
Turkish army, variously estimated at from 75,000 to 250,000 
men, marched on the Suez Canal and succeeded in reaching 
within striking distance of the great artificial waterway at sev- 
eral points. For several months bitter fighting took place, the 
canal being defended by an Anglo-Egyptian army aided by 
Australians and New Zealanders and French and British 
forces. 

For the greater part of 1915 conflicting reports of the sit- 
uation were received from the belligerents, but in December 
of that year definite information showed that the Turks had 
been driven back as far as El Arish, about eighty-five miles east 



AMERICAN FORCES BECOME FACTOR. 407 

of the canal. A lull occurred then which lasted for six months, 
and in June, 1916, the Turks again advanced as far at Katieh, 
about fifteen miles east of the canal. Here they were decisively 
defeated, losing more than 3000 prisoners and a great quantity 
of equipment. 

Another period followed in which the situation was greatly 
confused through the vagueness and contradictory character of 
the official statements, but in December, 1916, the British 
stormed El Arish and a few days later severely defeated the 
Turks at Maghdabah, about sixty miles to the south on the 
same front. Two weeks later the invaders had been driven out 
of Egypt and the British forces crossed the border into Pales- 
tine. On March 7 they captured El Khulil, southeast of Gaza. 

By November 22 the British had pushed within five miles 
of Jerusalem, on the northwest, and on December 7 General 
Allenby announced that he had taken Hebron. Jerusalem thus 
was virtually cut off on all sides but the east. 

HISTORICAL INTEREST TO CHRISTIANS. 

In sentimental and romantic aspect the capture of Jeru- 
salem far exceeds even the fall of fable-crowned Bagdad. The 
modern City of Jerusalem contains about 60,000 inhabitants, 
and is the home of pestilence, filth and fevers, but in historic 
interest it natually surpasses, to the Christian world, all other 
places in the world. Since the days when David wrested it 
from the hands of the Jebusites to make it the capital of the 
Jewish race Jerusalem has been the prize and prey of half the 
races of the world. It has passed successively into the hands 
of the Assyrians, Babylonians, Greeks, Romans, Persians, 
Arabs, Turks, the Crusaders, finally to fall before the descend- 
ants of that Richard the Lion-hearted who strove in vain for 
its possession more than 700 years ago. 

Early in January, 1918, evidence was forthcoming that 
Germany was preparing to make a final drive on the West- 
ern Front to break through and capture some English and 



408 AMERICAN FORCES BECOME FACTOR. 

French channel ports before America could be of any great 
assistance to the Allied forces. As a result Great Britain deter- 
mined to call 500,000 more men to hold the Huns, and Premier 
Lloyd George issued a stirring appeal to Labor affected by 
the Man-Power Bill, which provided for the increase taken 
largely from the labor forces. 

The German intent to launch an offensive was indicated 
by the withdrawal of German lines north of Italy when im- 
portant defensive positions were abandoned, and dummy sol- 
diers were left in trench to conceal movement to the rear. 
Warnings of a great submarine offensive on American boat- 
lines to France, to be joined with a big drive on land, were re- 
ceived by Secretary of War Baker, and on February % the 
American troops occupying a sector of the Lorraine front in 
France faced the first big bombardment in what was prelim- 
inary to the most bitter drive Germany had attempted in four 
years of warfare. 

SINKING OF THE TUSCANIA. 

True to their promise the German submarines started 
their portion of the offensive and sunk the U. S. troopship 
"Tuscania" a few days later off the coast of Ireland. The 
liner carried 2,179 U. S. troops of various divisions besides a 
crew of 200. T.he total number of persons lost was 113. The 
troops included engineers, members of the aero-squadron, and 
regulars. 

The Tuscania was the first troopship to be sunk en route 
to France, though the Antilles was sunk in October, 1917. 
This boat, however, it must be noted, was returning from 
France. At this time 70 lives were lost. The comparatively 
small loss of life on the "Tuscania" was accepted as evidence 
of the efficient training and bravery of American troops under 
all conditions. 

The Tuscania was torpedoed when entering what until 
that time were considered comparatively safe waters. The 



AMERICAN FORCES BECOME FACTOR. 409 

ships were within sight of land, which was just distinguish- 
able in the dusk of evening when the torpedo hit the Tuscania 
amidships. This was at about 7 o'clock. 

When the crash came the khaki-clad young heroes of the 
American army lined up as though on parade, and sang the 
"Star Spangled Banner" at the top of their voices as the 
Tuscania sank by inches under them. Across from them 
their British cousins of the crew came back with the echo- 
ing "God Save the King," which too cool-headed exponents of 
what occurred in a crisis of a sea disaster say accounts for 
the fact the Germans took onlv a toll of 113 lives out of the 
2,397 souls on board the Cunarder when she met her fate. 

AMERICAN COURAGE PRAISED. 

If the singing man is a fighting man, he also is hopeful, 
and in the combination of fight and hope there came the baf- 
fling of the German attempt to reduce the American war forces 
by almost a full regiment. Taking stock after the disaster, 
the officers of both the army and navy praised the courage of 
the Americans as the chief reason for the saving of more than 
90 per cent of the men on board. 

No submarine was seen until the torpedo struck the Tus- 
cania fairly amidships. A moment later another torpedo 
passed astern of the vessel. There was a terrific explosion, and 
it is believed most of the casualties were caused by this and by 
subsequent difficulties in lowering the boats. 

The vessel immediately took a heavy list and the men 
were called to their lifeboat stations, but the list prevented the 
boats from being properly lowered, some of the upper-deck 
boats falling to the lower deck. Many of the men jumped 
into the water, and the difficulty in lowering the boats was re- 
sponsible for many casualties. 

The survivors of the Tuscania landed at points in Ireland 
were received with great honor in the various communities, and 



410 AMERICAN FORCES BECOME FACTOR. 

great tribute was paid to the surviving soldiers by the Mayor 
of Dublin. 

The American troops on the Tuscania were part of the 
forces being hurried to France to hold the Germans in check, 
and at the time American troops were holding a sector with 
the French in Lorraine, northwest of Toul, while American 
artillery were supporting the French in Champagne. The 
date set for the big German drive was announced as January 
28, and the fact that Germany made an open proclamation of 
the fact that they proposed to wage offensive warfare was 
somewhat puzzling to the minds of those studying the situa- 
tion. Making her position more impregnable, Germany halted 
her armies in Russia upon the acceptance of peace terms by 
the Russian delegation at Brest-Litovsk, which were con- 
cluded on March 1, 1918, and daily the activities of the German 
forces on the Western Front grew in intensity. On March 
6, in anticipation of the drive, it was for the first time publicly 
stated that 81,000 troops of American soldiers were holding 
an eight mile line on the Lorraine front, with three full divi- 
sions in the trenches. The gathering together of this force 
and other American troops in France drew Secretary of War 
Baker to the scene of activities. He was the first American 
Cabinet officer to cross the ocean after America entered 
the war. 

SEIZURE OF ALL DUTCH VESSELS. 

Holland having proved herself unwilling to come to a 
satisfactory agreement at this time on the British- American 
demand regarding the use of ships, President Wilson ordered 
the seizure of all Dutch vessels within the territorial juris- 
diction of the United States ; the Allies ordered a similar seiz- 
ure abroad. The President's proclamation authorized the navy 
to take over the vessels to be equipped and operated by the 
Navy Department and the Shipping Board. A total of 77 
ships were added to the American Merchant Marine. 



AMERICAN FORCES BECOME FACTOR. 411 

Holland's failure to act was on the propositions that the 
United States and the Allies should facilitate the importation 
into Holland of foodstuffs, and other commodities required to 
maintain her economic life, and that Holland should restore 
her Merchant Marine to a normal condition of activity. 

On March 21 the greatest German offensive of the war 
actually began on a front 50 miles long, running west and 
southwest of Cambrai. The preliminary German bombard- 
ment covered a front from the River Serre below St. Quentin, 
and the River Scarpe east of Arras. 

FIERCEST BATTLE IN WORLD'S HISTORY. 

Field Marshal Haig's report from British headquarters 
in France described the German offensive as comprising an 
intense bombardment by the artillery and a powerful infantry 
attack on a front of more than fifty miles. Some of the British 
positions were penetrated, but the German losses were excep- 
tionally heavy. 

It was reported at the end of the first day that the fiercest 
battle of the world's history was in progress, and that 80,000 
Germans were lost in battle ; while Berlin reported the capture 
of 16,000 Allied prisoners and 200 guns. 

The Associated Press correspondent reported that at least 
forty divisions of German soldiers were identified as actively 
participating in the attack. No such concentration of artillery 
had been seen since the war began. The enemy had 1,000 
guns in one small sector — one for every twelve yards. The 
Germans in many sections attacked in three waves of infantry, 
followed up by shock troops. As a result they suffered very 
heavy casualties. 

The German massed artillery was badly hammered by the 
British guns. 

In the first stage of their offensive the Germans failed 
badly in the execution of their program, as was attested by 



412 AMERICAN FORCES BECOME FACTOR. 

captured documents showing what they planned to do in the 
early hours of their offensive. 

By March 24 the attacks of the Germans had been re- 
doubled, and it was estimated that more than 1,000,000 Huns 
had been thrown into the struggle against the British forces 
on which the attack was concentrated. 

The most notable feature of the attack from the spectacu- 
lar viewpoint was the bombardment of Paris by monster Ger- 
man cannon, located in the forest of St. Gobain, west of Laon, 
and approximately 76 miles away from Paris. 

BIG GUN ONE HUNDRED FEET LONG. 

Though no official description of the big gun was ever 
given, it was stated by military authorities that it was approxi- 
mately 100 feet in length, and that several were in use, and 
more being built by the Germans. At first the statement that 
a gun could shoot such a distance was doubted, but when 75 
persons were killed in Paris and one of the shells hit a church 
doubt no longer existed. It also developed that the gun was 
originally an American invention, and that similar weapons 
were being built by the United States. 

The use of the big gun was in the nature of a "side-issue" 
to bring terror to the French, and in line with the policy of 
frightfulness instituted by the German militarists. Its use 
was continued daily. Meantime the German hordes swept on 
marching in close formation into the very mouths of the rapid- 
fire guns and against the strongly fixed British lines. 

For ten days the hostilities continued, without cessation, 
with fighting along a whole front such as had never been known 
"before. 

The Germans continued to hurl great forces of infantry 
into the conflict, depending largely on weight of numbers to 
overcome the increasing opposition offered by the heroically 
resisting British. 

The battle on the historic ground about Longueval was 



AMERICAN FORCES BECOME FACTOR. 413 

perhaps the most spectacular of any along the front. It was 
a battle of machine gunners and infantry. The Germans were 
pursuing their tactics of working forward in massed formation, 
and the British rapid-firers' squads and riflemen reaped a horrid 
harvest from their positions on the high ground. Notwith- 
standing their terrible losses, the Germans kept coming on, fill- 
ing in the places of those who had fallen and pressing their at- 
tack. The British artillery in the meantime poured in a perfect 
rain of shells on the enemy, carrying havoc into their ranks. 
In this section the Germans operated without the full support 
of their guns, because of their rapid advance. 
ENEMY LOSES HEAVILY. 

A fierce engagement was also waged about Le Verguier, 
which the Germans captured, but not until the British infan- 
try holding the place had fought to the last man and inflicted 
extremely heavy losses on the enemy. The British again fell 
back, this time to a line through Hervilly, just east of Roisel 
and Vermand. 

The work of the British airmen during the battle was one 
of the brightest pages. Bitter battles in the air were fought 
by scores of aviators and the service proved fully its ability to 
smother the German airmen at a crucial time. 

Within a few days it was stated that at least 130 German 
airplanes were brought down. This compilation of losses has 
reference to only one section of the battle front, comprising 
perhaps two-thirds of the line affected. 

An official statement regarding British aerial operations 
said their airplanes were employed in bombing the enemy's 
troops and transport massed in the areas behind the battle- 
front, and in attacking them with machine-gun fire from low 
heights. Twenty-two tons of bombs were dropped in this 
work, and more than 100,000 rounds were fired from the ma- 
chine guns. 

By March 28 the German losses were estimated at 400,000. 



414 AMERICAN FORCES BECOME FACTOB. 

The forces of the Germans were almost overwhelming, the 
Kaiser sacrificing the man-power of his nation in a last desper- 
ate attack. 

In consequence no greater stories of heroism have ever 
been told than are related of the English, French and American 
troops. The Germans were set for a drive against the English 
and French channel points with Amiens as an objective, with 
the idea of breaking through the British lines where they join 
the French. 

AMERICAN FORCES OFFERED TO FRANCE. 

The earnestness of the Americans in the situation was 
proclaimed to the world by the English and French, and Gen- 
eral Pershing placed his name and that of his country and men 
high on the wall of fame by unselfishly offering to France at 
the most critical period the use of his entire force, to be disposed 
of and assigned wherever General Foch and his staff decided to 
use them. Within a few days thereafter the American troops 
which had been in training were marched in to relieve the 
stressed English and French. 

Everywhere the raging battle was marked by spectacular 
features not the least of which were provided by a corps of 
thirty tanks, which waded into the German hordes near Ephey 
and other points, recovering positions which had been lost by 
the British. 

Canadian armored motorcars also played an important 
part in checking the Huns, the cars armed with rapid-fire guns 
being rushed up to support weakening troops. 

The progress of the Germans was halted on April 3, and 
in the following days the British regained several lost positions 
and the French made gains. But after a pause, during which 
several hundred thousand new troops were brought in, the 
Huns renewed the offensive, delivering an attack against the 
French near Montdidier on a front about 15 miles long. An 



AMERICAN FORCES BECOME FACTOR. 415 

attack along a front of similar length was made against the 
British on the Somme. 

The first battalion of American troops answering to the 
call of the French for support reached the British front-line in 
France, on April 10, on the very anniversary of the entrance 
of the United States into the war, and within a few days the 
Americans began to bear the brunt of battle, holding the Ger- 
mans like veterans. 

The first big attack of the Germans launched directly 
against an American line occurred on April 30, in the vicinity 
of Villers-Bretonneaux, below the Somme, where the Huns 
were repulsed with heavy losses. The German preliminary 
bombardment lasted two hours and then the infantry rushed 
forward, only to be driven back, leaving large numbers of dead 
on the ground in front of the American lines. 
AMERICANS BOMBARDED. 

The German bombardment opened at 5 o'clock in the af- 
ternoon and was directed especially against the Americans, who 
were supported on the north and south by the French. The 
fire was intense and at the end of two hours the German com- 
mander sent forward three battalions of infantry. There was 
hand-to-hand fighting all along the line, as a result of which 
the enemy was thrust back, his dead and wounded lying on the 
ground in all directions. Five prisoners remained in Ameri- 
can hands. 

"Tell them back home that we are just beginning," said 
an American lad who was in the thick of the fight and severely 
wounded with shrapnel. "It was fine to see our men go at the 
Huns. All of us, who thought baseball was the great American 
game, have changed our minds. There is only one game to keep 
the American flag flying — that is, kill the Huns. I got sev- 
eral before they got me." 

Details of the engagement show the Americans stuck to 
their guns while the Germans were placing liquid fire, gas and 



416 AMERICAN FORCES BECOME FACTOR. 

almost every other conceivable device of frightf ulness on them. 
One of them, who lay wounded in an American hospital, had 
kept his machine gun going after the chief gunners had been 
killed two feet away and he himself had been wounded, thus 
protecting a turn in the road known as Dead Man's curve, over 
which some of the American couriers passed in the face of a con- 
centrated enemy fire. 

As indicating the violence of the offensive, French ambu- 
lance men who went through the famous battle of Verdun 
declared today that, comparatively speaking, the German artil- 
lery fire against the Americans was heavier than in any single 
engagement on the Verdun front at any time. 

The German barrage began just before sunrise. In an 
attempt to put the American batteries out of action the Ger- 
mans used an unusually large number of gas shells, but the 
American artillery replied vigorously, hurling hundreds of 
shells across the Teuton lines. Though successful in resisting 
the German attack, the Americans lost 183 men captured by 
the Huns, according to the British report. 

Nothing in the history of naval warfare is more pictur- 
esque than the story of the raid made by English ships on the 
German submarine bases at Ostend and Zeebrugge, on the 
Belgian coast, on April 22. Obsolete cruisers filled with con- 
crete were run aground and blown up in the harbors. An old 
submarine filled with explosives was used to blow up the piling 
beside the Mole at Zeebrugge. 

One German destroyer was torpedoed, and the British 
lost a destroyer, two coastal motorboats and two launches. 

A fortnight later the old cruiser Vindictive was taken into 
the submarine base at Ostend and sent to the bottom, blocking 
the channel, making the attack thoroughly effective. 



CHAPTER XXVI 
AMERICANS TURN WAR'S TIDE 

Brilliant American Fighting Stops Hun Advance — French and British Inspired 
— Famous Marines Lead in Picturesque Attack: — Halt Germans at 
Chateau-Thierry — Used Open Style Fighting — Thousands of Germans 
Slain — United States Troops in Siberia — New Conscription Bill Passed 1 — 
Allied Successes on All Fronts. 

ALL history contains no greater story of bravery and 
heroism than that which echoed around the world con- 
cerning the exploits of the American soldiers in France 
as the war entered its fifth year. 

Casting aside all precedent, ignoring the practices which 
had been developed by the English, French and German com- 
mands during four years of stubborn fighting, a little force of 
Americans — barely a handful, led by the picturesque Marines 
— brought the Huns to a standstill in their drive upon Paris 
and turned the tide of war. 

Once again history repeated itself, for the Germans were 
turned back at the beautiful river Marne, where the brave 
Americans and heroic French smashed their lines. The spec- 
tacular event in which the Americans participated was a mere 
incident of the great conflict raging across France, but the 
story must ever be one of the outstanding features of the war 
because of the effect it produced upon the whole situation. 

In the struggle against the Huns the Belgian army had 
been reduced to its lowest ebb; the manpower of France and 
England had been sapped by constant call for reserves, and 
the AJlied forces, while resisting and fighting heroically, were 
without reserves to draw upon to effect a decisive blow when 
the opportunity presented. 

The German hordes had swept forward with hammer- 
like blows toward Paris in what was a continuation of the giant 
offensive started in March. The second movement was 

H R--27 417 



418 AMERICANS TURN WAR'S TIDE 

launched under the personal command of the German Crown 
Prince on May 27, and was directed against four divisions of 
the British troops and the Sixth French Army. Concentra- 
tion was on a front stretching from Soissons to Rheims, a dis- 
tance of about 30 miles. 

The Huns were driving on the entire front, but the Crown 
Prince with crack troops was to have the honor for which he 
had long been striving — that of crossing the famous Marne 
and taking Paris. His troops had reached the river between 
Dormans and Chateau-Thierry at the very spot where the 
Third German Army had swept across the stream on August 
25, 1914. Paris was less than 50 miles away. 

Here and there at other points the Germans had been held 
by the French and English, but as part of the strategy of the 
French command the enemy had been permitted to advance at 
this point through lines which would cost him a terrible toll of 
lives. The French meantime were concentrating on the 
enemy's flank with the hope of breaking through and pocketing 
part of the Crown Prince's advancing forces. 

Whatever the intent, the Germans were resisting the ef- 
forts to: stop them. The question was, where would the ad- 
vance end? The answer was furnished by America. 

The enemy had attempted to broaden his Marne salient 
and had stretched as far south as Chateau- Thierry. It is sup- 
posed his purpose was to compel General Foch to meet shock 
with shock by throwing in his reserve forces, since the German 
advance had then almost reached shelling distance of Paris. 

But the German command had not taken the Americans 
into their calculations, for here the Prussians met Uncle Sam's 
fighting men and their French supports and were smashed and 
thrown back. 

Fighting in their own way, in the open, against superior 
forces, the Marines and troops of the National American Army 
fought their way to victory, routing the enemy and wresting 



AMERICANS TURN WAR'S TIDE 419 

from them positions absolutely necessary to their further 
advance. 

Immense forces of Germans had been thrown into the 
fray when the American division, to which the Marines were 
attached, was ordered into the breach. The bulk of the forces, 
called to help halt the Huns, were hours away from the 
fighting front and were being brought up for the purpose of 
holding a secondary position where they would take up the 
fighting when the French fell back. 

They had captured Cantigny after elaborate preparations 
under the direction of the French, but here there were no 
preparations. The American commanders wanted to attack 
the advancing enemy. The Allied leaders doubted the ability 
of the Americans to stop the Boche in open combat. 

The American commanders pleaded to make war in their 
own way. Doubting, yet hopeful, the Allied commanders gave 
consent. The Americans were moved into position. There 
was no time for rest and they came forward under forced draft, 
so to speak. Infantry, machine gun companies and artillery 
swung into position and faced the enemy which aimed a blow 
at the line where it was supported by the French on the left. 

The Boche hordes swarmed across fields. The American 
gunners raked them with hell's fire. The reputation of the 
Americans as sharpshooters and marksmen was sustained. 
Under the most stressful circumstances and while the French 
observers stood amazed, the Americans took careful aim and 
shot as though at rifle practice. Every possible shot was made 
to tell. 

The Germans wavered, then halted under the withering 
fire of machine guns and rifle. On again they came, only to 
again be repulsed. The ground was strewn with their dead and 
wounded. Then they began to break and to crawl back to 
safer positions. 

The enemy had been stopped but not driven. They had 



420 AMERICANS TURN WAR'S TIDE 

fallen back to strong positions, the names of which must go 
down in history as scenes of terrific fighting — Bouresches and 
Bois de Belleau — the latter a wooded, rocky parcel of land on 
which German machine guns were hidden — hundreds of them 
* — while more than a thousand of the enemy's best men were 
concealed in the thicket and underbrush and in the rocky 
fissures. 

The Americans drove into the wood and charged the 
stronghold. Sacrifice! Yes, hundreds of brave young Ameri- 
cans died fighting, but not in vain. American artillery swept 
the woods ; little companies of men charged the enemy machine- 
gun nests, silencing the guns and killing the operators or tak- 
ing them prisoners. There was no going forward in mass 
formation under barrage or protecting curtain of fire, but out 
in the open the Marines and infantrymen rushed on facing 
terrific fire. 

Bois de Belleau was cleared of the Boche. Bouresches fell 
to the Americans. The capture of the town was a repetition 
of the taking of the first position. Machine guns protected 
the town everywhere. In cellar windows, doorways and on 
roofs the Germans had set up their weapons. But it was the 
old story — no hail of shot could stop the Americans. Almost 
without sleep, unable to bring up supplies, the Americans had 
fought four days with only canned foodstuffs to sustain them. 

Stories of the fights are reminiscent of those in which 
American troops engaged the Indians on the plains in the 
frontier days. Indeed American Indians — children of the 
famous old Sioux and Chippewa tribes of Bed Men — acted as 
scouts for Uncle Sam in many of his troops' activities in 
France, and the methods of the old Indian fighters proved too 
much for the Germans. 

It is estimated that 7000 were killed or wounded by the 
Americans in this action, and that their prisoners numbered 
more than 1000. How privates took command of squads and 



AMERICANS TURN WAR'S TIDE 421 

continued to outbattle the enemy when officers were killed ; how 
lone Americans or small groups of them captured squads of 
Huns or annihilated them, are common stories of heroism writ- 
ten into the official war records of the American Expeditionary 
Forces in France, and sealed by medals of honor presented to 
young Americans or confirmed by official words of commenda- 
tion. 

Let the words of General Pershing in an official order to 
his troops on August 27, stand as part of the record : 

"It fills me with pride to record in General Orders a 
tribute to the service achievements of the First and Third 
Corps, comprising the First, Second, Third, Fourth, Twenty- 
sixth, Twenty-eighth, Thirty-second and Forty-second Divis- 
ions of the American Expeditionary Forces. 

"You came to the battlefield at a crucial hour for the 
Allied cause. For almost four years the most formidable army 
the world has yet seen had pressed its invasion of France and 
stood threatening its capital. At no time has that army been 
more powerful and menacing than when, on July 15, it struck 
again to destroy in one great battle the brave men opposed to 
it and to enforce its brutal will upon the world and civilization. 
"Three days later, in conjunction with our Allies, you coun- 
ter-attacked. The Allied armies gained a brilliant victory that 
marks the turning point of the war. You did more than to 
give the Allies the support to which as a nation our faith was 
pledged. 

"You proved that our altruism, our pacific spirit and our 
sense of justice have not blunted our virility or our courage. 

"You have shown that American initiative and energy are 
as fit for the tasks of war as for the pursuits of peace. You 
have justly won unstinted praise from our Allies and the 
eternal gratitude of our countrymen. 

"We have paid for successes with the lives of many of our 
brave comrades. We shall cherish their memory always and 



422 AMERICANS TURN WAR'S TIDE 

claim for our history and literature their bravery, achievement 
and sacrifice. 

"This order will be read to all organizations at the first 
assembly formations following its receipt." 

Aside from being largely responsible for stopping the 
Huns once again at the Marne, the exploits of the Americans 
filled the French and English with confidence, aroused their 
spirits and gave them renewed hope. Incidentally their efforts 
and methods made apparent the value of surprise attacks and 
quick blows in dealing with the stolid Huns. 

The Allied commanders, quick to take advantage of the 
situation, gave the enemy no chance to consolidate their posi- 
tions. The unified forces of Allies attacked with renewed 
energy all along the line, and the Huns were forced back with 
a sweep that astonished the world. 

By September 1, the Germans had lost practically all that 
they had gained in their drive from March 21, and in many 
places they had been driven back across the famous Hinden- 
burg line, the furthest point of retreat of the Germans in 1914, 
when they were forced back by General Joff re from the Marne, 
and dug themselves into pit and trench. Dozens of towns were 
taken and more than 120,000 prisoners were bagged. 

Almost as spectacular in its effect on the minds of the 
French and English, as was the demonstration of American 
fighting, was the work accomplished in France in providing 
for the transportation and care of the incoming troops. Here 
great docks, storage plants, training camps, aviation schools, 
motor assembling plants, base hospitals and reclamation es- 
tablishments and railroads, built in less than a year and still 
growing, represented an investment of $35,000,000 on the 
part of the United States Government in August, 1918. 

Early in May the number of Americans in France was 
about 500,000. That this number should have been sent across 
the ocean within the space of one year after America entered 



AMERICANS TURN WAR'S TIDE 423 

the war was regarded as a distinct achievement, but by Sep- 
tember it was officially announced that the number had in- 
creased to 1,500,000. 

Some of these were sent to the Italian front to help in 
the drive against the Austrians, and about 15,000 troops from 
the Philippines were sent by the United States into Siberia to 
give moral support to the Czecho-Slovaks. 

The decision to send troops to Siberia was by agreement 
with the Japanese, and followed a statement issued by the 
United States on August 4, in which it was stated that "mili- 
tary action was admissable in Russia only to render such pro- 
tection and help as possible to the Czecho-Slovaks against 
armed Austrian and German prisoners who were attacking 
them, and to steady any efforts at self-government or self- 
defense in which the Russians themselves may be willing to 
accept assistance." It was stated that the troops were for 
guard duty, and under the agreement with Japan, the only 
other country in a position to act in Siberia, each nation sent 
a small force to Vladivostok. 

The British, French and United States Governments gave 
recognition to the Czecho-Slovaks as an Allied nation — a 
geographical, political and military entity — with three armies, 
one in Siberia, one in Italy and one in France, where they had 
been fighting with the Allies to crush the Huns. The territory 
which the Czecho-Slovaks claim as their own to govern inde- 
pendently comprises Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia and Slavonika, 
which lie between and are part of Austria-Hungary and 
Germany. 

With the facilities for handling the troops abroad thor- 
oughly organized and the obvious necessity for furnishing 
greater manpower to bring about an early defeat of Germany, 
the United States decided to increase the scope of its conscrip- 
tion and to raise an army of 3,000,000 for immediate service 
and adopted a new manpower bill which was passed by Con- 



424 AMERICANS TURN WAR'S TIDE 

gress the last week in August and signed by President Wilson 
on August 30. 

The measure provided for the registration and drafting 
of all male citizens between the ages of 18 and 45 years, allow- 
ing for deferred classification of those engaged in essential 
work or having obligations which made it impossible for them 
to render active military service. 

Not only the Allied successes on the western front, but 
also those on the Italian front and in the Balkans, where the 
French, Italians and Greeks in Albania, with a million troops, 
advanced against the Germans, Austrians and Turks, made 
apparent the necessity for further concentration of manpower. 

While losing ground on the western front and rapidly 
being forced to the wall, Germany gave another spectacular 
twist to her military program by carrying the war to America's 
doors. With her submarines she sank nearly two score of ships, 
schooners, barges, tugs, and even a lightship, within a few 
miles of New York, Boston, Norfolk, Charleston and the Del- 
aware Capes. 

But while the U-boats were harassing, no effective as- 
saults were made against the ships which carried American 
troops abroad. In this connection it should never be forgotten 
in the glamour of war that while America performed wonders 
in getting her soldiers overseas, England provided most of the 
ships, and that it was England's Navy which kept the German 
Navy in check while America's war vessels and destroyers con- 
voyed the troopships and protected them from the submarines. 



CHAPTER XXVII 
VICTOEY— PEACE 

The German Empire Collapses — Foch's Strategy Wins — American Inspiration 
a Big Factor — Bulgaria, Turkey and Austria Quit War — Monarchs 
Fall — Kaiser Abdicates and Flees Germany — Armistice Signed — November 
11, Peace. 



T 



HEN came the fall of autocracy- 
Victory! Peace! 



With a crash that echoed around the world the 
autocratic governmental structure builded by the Kaiser 
and his forebears gave way and came tumbling to the earth 
in ruins on Monday, November 11, 1918. 

The most momentous event in ages had come to pass 
and victory was perched upon the banner of democracy. 

Out of the sacrifice of millions of lives, the desolation 
of homes and countries, the expenditure of untold energy 
and incomprehensible billions of dollars in money, there 
came everlasting, glorious peace. 

The great German Empire lay a wreck, given into the 
hands of the people for remaking, and the arrogant Em- 
peror William Hohenzollern had fled into Holland. 

The end came swiftly and with dramatic action. 
Beaten back by the Allied forces, which gathered strength 
and inspiration from the irresistible American troops, the 
Gierman army weakened all along the line from Holland 
to the Swiss border. The press of power exerted against 
the German strongholds on every side was felt within the 
domains and produced internal strife and dissension which 
undermined and weakened the military organization. 
Taking full advantage of this situation, the Allied forces 
on every side quickened and intensified their blows. 

The brilliant strategy of Marshal Foch, generalissimo 
of the Allied armies, brought defeat to the Germans in less 
than four months. After bringing to an end the German 
advance of March 21 to July 18 with the second battle of 
the Marne, he compelled a hurried retirement to the Hin- 

425 



426 VICTOEY— PEACE 

denburg line with the evacuation of practically all the terri- 
tory conquered by the Huns. 

Finally, in what may be termed the last phase of the 
war, he absolutely demoralized the German forces. The 
thrust in this phase was started by the Anglo-Belgian 
forces in Flanders and the Franco-American armies in 
Lorraine on September 26. 

The British also made a gigantic and brilliant drive 
between Cambrai and St. Quentin. The whole colossal 
defense system of the Germans was shattered and in less 
than three months more than 100,000 German prisoners and 
5000 guns were taken and 8000 square miles of French and 
Belgian territory liberated. 

Not only was there great victory on the west, but in 
Syria the British army broke the power of Turkey and 
liberated Syria, Mesopotamia and Arabia. In Macedonia, 
too, an army made up of soldiers of many nations under a 
French command compelled the surrender of Bulgaria and 
her withdrawal, and swept the last vestige of German con- 
trol from the Balkans. 

On the Austrian front likewise the Italian army, 
strengthened and heartened by the presence of Ameri- 
can and Allied forces, swept the Austrians before them in 
one of the most picturesque offensives of the war, capturing 
more than 300,000 prisoners and great quantities of guns 
and supplies. 

This in brief is the way the German command was 
driven to a point of seeking peace to prevent the invasion 
of their territory. 

The brilliant assaults of the various units and com- 
mands of the Allies at points along the entire 200 miles of 
western front will go down in history a wonderful military 
achievement. 

One of the wonderful attacks was that of the Am erican 
First Army under General Pershing, when St. Mihiel 
salient was annihilated. This salient for four years resisted 
all efforts to penetrate it and stood a guardian to great iron 
fields running through the Bassin de Briey to the Belgian- 
Luxemburg frontier. It formed a strong outpost to the 
fortified city of Metz, with its twenty-eight forts, and made 
impossible the invasion of German Lorraine from the west. 



VICTOKY— PEACE 427 

The offensive of General Pershing was one of the most 
carefully planned of the war. More than 1000 tanks were 
operated to open the way for the infantry and cavalry. A 
greater force of airplanes than were ever concentrated in 
a single attack menaced the Germans overhead and in a 
week the Americans encompassed a territory of 200 square 
miles and threatened the mining center and the forts of 
Metz, capturing 20,000 prisoners and hundreds of guns and 
great quantities of ammunition. Moreover, the Verdun- 
Nancy railway was released. 

Support was brought to the Germans and they stub- 
bornly resisted, but many points were gained and held by 
the Americans. 

Another corps of the First Am erican Army, in com- 
mand of General Hunter Liggett, also made a brilliant 
attack between the Meuse and Aisne rivers east of Rheims 
on a front twenty miles long, where the crack Prussian 
Guards were routed. Here in one of the most bitterly con- 
tested battles of the closing days the Americans made an 
important advance, capturing half a dozen villages. 

As at Chateau-Thierry, the Americans in the face of 
withering fire and against all the instruments of modern 
warfare handled by the best soldiers in Germany, fought 
their way through with a bravery that won for them the 
praises of the highest commands in the French and British 
armies, as well as from General Pershing. 

At the very close of the struggle the Americans arose 
to the heights of sublime heroism in crossing the river 
Meuse, capturing the town of Dun and later the town of 
Sedan, famous as one of the scenes of bitter fighting in the 
Franco-Prussian War. 

The Americans forced their way across a 160-foot 
river, a stretch of mud flats and a 60-foot canal in the face 
of terrible fire. Men who could swim breasted the stream 
carrying ropes, which were stretched from bank to bank 
and along which those who could not swim made their way 
over the river. Some crossed in collapsible boats, others 
on rafts and finally on pontoon and foot bridges, which were 
constructed under the enemy fire. 

This difficult feat accomplished, the men waded 
through mud to the canal, fighting as they went, and again 



428 VICTORY— PEACE 

plunged into the water, swimming the canal, at the far side 
of which they were compelled to use grappling hooks and 
scaling irons to mount the perpendicular banks of the 
canal, along which were the resisting Germans. And 
finally, when the German Empire fell, famed Sedan was in 
the hands of the Americans. With the last forward move- 
ment they took possession of Stenay when hostilities ceased. 
The part the American soldiers played in winning the 
war, merely as a matter of increased man power, is indi- 
cated by the fact that when the end came there were 
2,900,000 men in the forces abroad. 

The failure of the German submarine warfare and the 
ability of the British, French and American naval forces 
to protect troop ships and permit the landing of as high as 
200,000 soldiers in France in a single month, had much to 
do with discouraging the Gierman command. 

Tne withdrawal of Bulgaria on September 27 and her 
unconditional surrender to the Allies was a distinct blow 
to Germany. The abdication of King Ferdinand in favor 
of Crown Prince Boris was shortly followed by the surren- 
der and withdrawal of Turkey, which further weakened 
Germany's position, and peace offers were made by both 
Austria and by Germany. 

Austria sought a separate peace, but Germany, seeing 
the handwriting on the wall, asked for an armistice through 
Prince Maximilian of Baden, who had succeeded Count 
Von Hertling as Chancellor. But while agreeing to accept 
as a basis of peace the points established by President 
Wilson as necessary to an agreement, Germany's military 
forces continued their ruthless and barbaric warfare. 

President Wilson submitted a set of questions to the 
German Government to ascertain the sincerity and pur- 
pose of the request and finally brought the matter to an 
issue by declaring that nothing short of a complete sur- 
render would suffice and that further negotiations must be 
taken up with the Allied command. 

Meantime King Boris of Bulgaria abdicated and the 
Government was taken over by the people. This was fol- 
lowed by the surrender of Austria on November 8 and the 
abdication of the Emperor Charles. 



VICTORY— PEACE 429 

Austria in her surrender agreed to the immediate sus- 
pension of hostilities, the demobilization of the army of 
Austro-Hungary and the withdrawal of all forces from the 
North Sea to Switzerland, the evacuation of all territories 
invaded, the evacuation of all German troops from Austro- 
Hungarian territory and the Italian and Balkan fronts, as 
well as the surrender of fifteen submarines and all German 
submarines in Austro-Hungarian territorial waters, to- 
gether with thirty-four warships, and also the repatriation 
of all prisoners of war. 

With her forces demoralized and Bulgaria, Turkey 
and Austria out of the war and her power broken in Russia, 
Germany was driven to the necessity of accepting terms 
submitted by the Allies as the basis of peace as outlined by 
President Wilson, and at midnight, November 10, Paris 
time, the German High Command signed an armistice and 
hostilities ceased on the following morning, November 11, 
1918, at 11 o'clock, Paris time. 

The terms of the armistice accepted by Germany were 
as follows : 

I. Military Clauses on Wbstbrn Front: 

One — Cessation of operations by land and in the air six hours after the signa- 
ture of the armistice. 

Two — Immediate evacuation of invaded countries : Belgium, France, Alsace- 
Lorraine, Luxemburg, so ordered as to he completed within fourteen days from the 
signature of the armistice. German troops which have not left the above-mentioned 
territories within the period fixed will become prisoners of war. Occupation by the 
Allied and United States forces jointly will keep pace with evacuation in these areas. 
All movements of evacuation and occupation will be regulated in accordance with 
a note annexed to the stated terms. 

Three — Repatriation beginning at once and to be completed within fourteen 
days of all inhabitants of the countries above mentioned, including hostages and 
persons under trial or convicted. 

Four — Surrender in good condition by the German armies of the following 
equipment: Five thousand guns (two thousand five hundred heavy, two thousand five 
hundred field) thirty thousand machine guns. Three thousand minenwerfers. Two 
thousand airplanes (fighters, bombers — firstly D. Seventy-three's and night bombing 
machines). The above to be delivered in situ to the Allies and the United States 
troops_in accordance with the detailed conditions laid down in the annexed note. 

Five — Evacuation by the German armies of the countries on the left bank of 
the Rhine. These countries on the left bank of the Rhine shall be administered by 
the local authorities under the control of the Allied and United States armies of occu- 
pation. The occupation of these territories will be determined by Allied and United 
States garrisons holding the principal crossings of the Rhine, Mayence, Coblenz, Cologne, 
together with bridgeheads at these points in thirty kilometre radius on the right bank 
and by_ garrisons similarly holding the strategic points of the* regions. 

A neutral zone shall be reserved on the right of the Rhine between the 
stream and a line drawn parallel to it forty kilometres (twenty-six miles) to the 
east from the frontier of Holland to the parallel of Gernsheim and as far as prac- 
ticable a distance of thirty kilometres (twenty miles) from the east of stream from 
this parallel upon Swiss frontier. Evacuation by the enemy of the Rhine rands 
shall be so ordered as to be completed within a further period of eleven days, in all 
nineteen days after the signature of the armistice. All movements of evacuation 
and occupation will be regulated according to the note annexed. 



430 VICTOEY— PEACE 

Six — In all territory evacuated by the enemy there shall be no evacuation 
of inhabitants; no damage or harm shall be done to the persons or property of the 
inhabitants. No destruction of any kind to be committed. Military establishments 
of all kinds shall be delivered intact as well as military stores of food, munitions, 
equipment not removed during the periods fixed for evacuation. Stores of food of all 
kinds for the civil population, cattle, etc., shall be left in situ. Industrial establish- 
ments shall not be impaired in any way and their personnel shall not be moved. 
Roads and means of communication of every kind, railroad, waterways, main roads, 
bridges, telegraphs, telephones, shall be in no manner impaired. 

Seven — All civil and military personnel at present employed on them shall 
remain. Five thousand locomotives, fifty thousand wagons and ten thousand motor 
lorries in good working order with all necessary spare parts and fittings shall be 
delivered to the associated powers within the period fixed for the evacuation of Belgium 
and Luxemburg. The railways of Alsace-Lorraine shall be handed over within the 
same period, together with all pre-war personnel and material. Further material 
necessary for the working of railways in the country on the left bank of the Rhine 
shall be left in situ. All stores of coal and material for the upkeep of permanent 
ways, signals and repair shops left entire in situ and kept in an efficient state by 
Germany during the whole period of armistice. All barges taken from the Allies shall 
be restored to them. A note appended regulates the details of these measures. 

Eight — The German command shall be responsible for revealing all mines 
or other acting fuses disposed on territory evacuated by the German troops and 
shall assist in their discovery and destruction. The German command shall also 
reveal all destructive measures that may have been taken (such as poisoning or 
polluting of springs, wells, etc.) under penalty of reprisals. 

Nine — The right of requisition shall be exercised by the Allied and the United 
States armies in all occupied territory. The upkeep of the troops of occupation in 
the Rhine land (excluding Alsace-Lorraine), shall be charged to the German Govern- 
ment 

Ten — An immediate repatriation without reciprocity according to detailed 
conditions which shall be fixed, of all Allied and United States prisoners of war. The 
Allied powers and the United States shall be able to dispose of these prisoners as 
they wish. 

Eleven — Sick and wounded, who cannot be removed from evacuated territory 
will be cared for by German personnel who will be left on the spot with the medical 
material required. 

II. Disposition Relative to the Eastern Frontiers of Germany : 

Twelve — All German troops at present in any territory which before the war 
belonged to Russia, Rumania or Turkey shall withdraw within the frontiers of Germany 
as they existed on August first, 1914. 

Thirteen — Evacuation by German troops to begin at once and all German 
instructors, prisoners and civilian as well as military agents, now on the territory of 
Russia (as defined before 1914) to be recalled. 

Fourteen — German troops to cease at once all requisitions and seizures and 
any other undertaking with a view to obtaining supplies intended for Germany in 
Rumania and Russia (as defined on August first, 1914). 

Fifteen — Abandonment of the treaties of Bucharest and Brest-Litovsk and 
of the supplementary treaties. 

Sixteen — The Allies shall have free access to the territories evacuated by 
the Germans on their eastern frontier either through Danzig or by the Vistula in 
order to convey supplies to the populations of those territories or for any other 
purpose. 

III. Clause Concerning East Africa : 

Seventeen — Unconditional capitulation of all German forces operating in 
East Africa within one month. 

IV. General Clauses : 

Eighteen — Repatriation, without reciprocity, within maximum period of one 
month, in accordance with detailed conditions hereafter to be fixed, of all civilians 
interned or deported who may be citizens of other Allied or associated states than 
those mentioned in clause three, paragraph nineteen, with the reservation that any 
future claims and demands of the Allies and the United States of America remain 
unaffected. 



VICTOEY— PEACE 431 

Nineteen — The following financial conditions are required : Reparation for 
damage done. While such armistice lasts no public securities shall be removed by 
the enemy which can serve as a pledge to the Allies for the recovery or repatriation 
for war losses. Immediate restitution of the cash deposit, in the National Bank 
of Belgium, and in general immediate return of all documents, specie, stocks, shares, 
paper money, together with plant for the issue thereof, touching public or private 
interests in the invaded countries. Restitution of the Russian and Rumanian gold 
yielded to Germany or taken by that power. This gold to be delivered in trust to 
the Allies until the signature of peace. 

V. Naval Conditions : 

Twenty — Immediate cessation of all hostilities at sea and definite information 
to be given as to the location and movements of all German ships. Notification to 
be given to neutrals that freedom of navigation in all territorial waters is given to 
the naval and mercantile marines of the Allied and associated powers, all questions 
of neutrality being waived. 

Twenty-one — All naval and mercantile marine prisoners of war of the Allied 
and associated powers in German hands to be returned without reciprocity. 

Twenty-two — Surrender to the Allies and the United States of America of 
one hundred and sixty German submarines (including all submarine cruisers and 
mine laying submarines) with their complete armament and equipment in ports which 
will be specified by the Allies and the United States of America. All other submarines 
to be paid off and completely disarmed and placed under the supervision of the 
Allied Powers and the United States of America. 

Twenty-three — The following German surface warships which shall be desig- 
nated by the Allies and the United States of America shall forthwith be disarmed 
and thereafter interned in neutral ports to be designated by the Allies and the United 
States of America and placed under the surveillance of the Allies and the United 
States of America, only caretakers being left on board, namely: 

Six battle cruisers, ten battleships, eight light cruisers, including two mine 
layers, fifty destroyers of the most modern type. All other surface warships (includ- 
ing river craft) are to be concentrated in naval bases to be designated by the Allies 
and the United States of America, and are to be paid off and completely disarmed 
and placed under the supervision of the Allies and the United States of America. 
All vessels of the auxiliary fleet (trawlers, motor vessels, etc.), are to be disarmed. 

Twenty-four — The Allies and the United States of America shall have the 
right to sweep all mine fields and obstructions laid by Germany outside German 
territorial waters, and the positions of these are to be indicated. 

Twenty-five — Freedom of access to and from the Baltic to be given to the 
naval and mercantile marine of the Allied and associated powers. To secure this the 
Allies and the United States of America shall be empowered to occupy all German 
forts, fortifications, batteries and defense works of all kinds in all the entrances from 
the Cattegat into the Baltic, and to sweep up all mines and obstructions within and 
without German territorial waters without any question of neutrality being raised, 
and the positions of all such mines and obstructions are to be indicated. 

Twenty-six — The existing blockade conditions set up by the Allies and asso- 
ciated powers are to remain unchanged, and all German merchant ships found at 
sea are to remain liable to capture. 

Twenty-seven — All naval aircraft are to be concentrated and immobilized 
in German bases to be specified by the Allies and the United States of America. 

Twenty-eight — In evacuating the Belgian coasts and ports, Germany shall 
abandon all merchant ships, tugs, lighters, cranes and all other harbor materials, 
all materials for inland navigation, all aircraft and all materials and stores, all 
arms and armaments, and all stores and apparatus of all kinds. 

Twenty-nine — All Black Sea ports are to be evacuated by Germany, all 
Russian war vessels of all descriptions seized by Germany in the Black Sea are to 
be handed over to the Allies and the United States of America; all neutral merchant 
vessels seized are to be released; all warlike and other materials of all kinds seized 
in those parts are to be returned and German materials as specified in clause 
twenty-eight are to be abandoned. 

Thirty — All merchant vessels in German hands belonging to the Allied and 
associated powers are to be restored in ports to be specified by the) Allies and the 
United States of America without reciprocity. 

Thirty-one — No destruction of ships or ©f materials to bs permitted before 
evacuation, surrender or restoration. 

Thirty-two — The German Government will notify neutral Governments of the 
world, and particularly the Governments of Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Holland, 
that all restrictions placed on the trading of their vessels with the Allied and asso- 



432 VICTOEY— PEACE 

ciated countries, whether by the German Government or by private German interests, 
and whether in return for specific concessions such as the export of shipbuilding mate- 
rials or not, are immediately cancelled. - 

Thirty-three — No transfers of German merchant shipping of any description 
to any neutral flag are to take place after signature of the armistice. 

VI. Duration of Armistice: 

Thirty-four — The duration of the armistice is to be thirty days, with option 
to extend. During this period, on failure of execution of any of the above clauses, 
the armistice may be denounced by one of the contracting parties on forty-eight 
hours' previous notice. 

VII. Time Limit for Reply : 

Thirty-five — This armistice to be accepted or refused by Germany within 
seventy-two hours of notification. 

A few hours before the signing of the armistice 
Emperor William Hohenzollern abdicated and fled into 
Holland, to be followed later by his son, the Crown Prince. 

Thus came peace after fifty-two continuous months of 
fighting, in which "it is estimated that nearly 10,000,000 
were killed and that there were about 27,000,000 casualties, 
while $200,000,000,000 were expended by the combined 
nations. 

America's casualties were 236,117, divided as follows 
Killed and died of wounds, 36,154 ; died of disease, 14,811 
died from unassigned causes, 2204; wounded, 179,625 
missing, 1160, and prisoners, 2163. 

England by contrast had 658,665 killed, 2,032,122 
wounded and 359,145 missing and prisoners during the four 
years, while Italy had about 1,600,000 casualties; France, 
3,500,000; Belgium, 400,000; Eumania, 200,000, and Rus- 
sia, 6,000,000. All told, twenty-eight nations, with a total 
population of approximately 1,600,000,000, or nearly 
eleven-twelfths of the human race, were involved in the 
world struggle at the close. 



THE NEGKRO IN THE WORLD WAR. 

BEFORE THE WAR. 

Civilization evolves destructive forces of change. War 
is change in explosive form. World notions, points of view, 
and general ideas of 1914 have spun the cycle of years with 
accelerated speed. At that time the public mind gained its 
concept of the Negro from encyclopaedic information. He 
was regarded as a " sub-species of mankind, dark of skin, 
wooly of hair, long of head, with dilated nostrils, thick lips, 
thicker cranium, flat foot, prehensible great toe and lark 
heel." 

He was described as a creature with " mental constitu- 
tion very similar to that of the child, on a lower evolution- 
ary plane than the white man, and more closely related to 
the highest anthropoids." His brain weight, we were told, 
was 35 ounces as compared with the gorilla's 20 ounces and 
the Caucasians 45. 

In America, conception of the Negro has ever fluctu- 
ated in direct ratio to the rise and fall of military domina- 
tion of the affairs of the republic. Whenever the military 
agencies of the government have been exalted, the Negro 
has been benefited by reaction of the public mind. From 
1865 to 1870 exaltation of the military element of American 
life brought along not only emancipation of the black man, 
but that conception of him which resulted in the conferring 
of manhood rights and privileges. In this short space of 
five years, so highly had the Negro come into public estima- 
tion that, with the protection of the military arm of the 
government, there were actively engaged in his interest an 
Emancipation League, a Freedmen's Pension Society, a 

28— A. J. 433 



434 THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 

Freedmen and Soldiers' Relief, a Freedmen's Aid Society 
of the M. E. Church, a Society of Friends of Great Britain 
and Ireland for the Relief of Emancipated Slaves of Amer- 
ica, an American Missionary Association, a Freedmen's 
Bureau, a Freedmen's Bank, a British and Foreign Anti- 
Slavery Society, an American Negro Aid Commission, and 
other organizations, too numerous for mention. So im- 
portant, however, was military organization and predomi- 
nance to the success of any one of these organizations, that 
Carl Schurz, reporting to Congress the condition of the 
South, declared: "If the national government firmly and 
unequivocally announces its policy not to give up the con- 
trol of free labor reform until it is firmly accomplished, the 
progress of the reform will be far more rapid and far less 
difficult than it will be if the attitude of the government is 
such as to permit contrary hopes to be indulged in." 

In 1870, as the military power of the United States 
weakened its control over the nation, forces of opposition 
arose to pull down to the depths the black man, who had 
been exalted by the agencies of military government. The 
Ku Klux Klan, headed by the Grand Wizard of the Invi- 
sible Empire, and the Grand Dragon of the Realm, with 
malignant fanaticism worshipped the lost cause. Hatred 
of white man for Negro, accentuated and embittered by 
hatred for the Yankee carpet-bagger and the southern 
scalawag, resulted in the rise of a powerful southern par- 
tisanship, stunned only so long as military power held sway. 
Peonage took place of colored free labor. Disproportion- 
ate appropriation of taxes between blacks and whites low- 
ered the Negro measurably year by year. With the com- 
plete removal of military supremacy, the Ku Klux courted 
publicity which it had hitherto shunned. A leader, the 
statesman of the new era, in the person of the late Benja- 
min R. Tillman, of South Carolina, appeared. He split the 
loose organization of southern aristocracy with the blacks 



THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 435 

with lily white wedge, and trampled into dust every 
agency which favored the black man. He deprived the 
black of all weapons of offence or defence, disfranchised 
him, shunted him off into the ghetto, and called the world 
to mock him in his lowly position. This southern states- 
man lived to see the Solid South come into national power 
in 1912. From that time, until the beginning of the world 
war in 1914, the American negro reached the lowest point 
of his political and social status. 

Compared with Anglo-Saxon, Frenchman, Italian, 
Austrian, German or Russian, he was of an order and de- 
gree reputed farthest down. No celebrity attached to his 
menial state. No distinction might be his as an award from 
the courts of nations. Dignity, grandeur and majesty ap- 
plied to Guelphs, Hapsburgs and Hohenzollerns. Theirs 
was all arrogation of super eminence. And to them all, the 
Negro, throughout the world, was, if a man at all, pre- 
eminently the mere Man Friday. 

From such a status of debasement, existing in an in- 
tolerable atmosphere of derogation and disrepute, the hum- 
ble and humiliated American Negro sought the exaltation 
of international honor. Denied and disavowed at home, 
through vicissitude of international war, he hoped for 
affirmation of a new world dictum in acknowledgment of 
his human qualities and worth. He did not, like Toussaint, 
long for the high honors of the continental emperor. He 
sought democratic equality, and he would as lief think of 
bringing the Kaiser to his level as exalting himself to the 
plane of that immortal celebrity. 

He wanted to make good in public. He wanted to 
demonstrate both efficiency and initiative. He desired that 
popular belief conceive him as a man, not a monkey. He 
wished the Caucasian world to take into its head that he 
might function as a valuable and serviceable element of 
twentieth century civilization. He yearned to reveal his 



436 THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 

powers in every field of endeavor. And he expected that 
when the Caucasian had arrived at a fair judgment in his 
behalf, he would issue to him the warrant certifying that 
he was four-square with the dominant opinion of mankind, 
and, therefore, entitled to the honors of superior status. 

He aimed to compensate the world by presenting a con- 
cept of beauty in place of a general notion of repellent ugli- 
ness. Instead of being regarded as a " Hottentot with click- 
ing palate, whom the meanest of the rest look down upon 
for all his glimmering language and spirituality," he wished 
the world to find in him fitness for survival, conformity 
with civilization's ideal, example of the world philosophy 
of forbearance, human relationships, symmetry and poise 
in adaptation to the world's tasks, and moderation in respect 
of the higher laws, whose harmonies order and rectify all 
creation. 

He sought to neutralize the misteachings of Adam 
Smith, of Darwin and Defoe. Smith's " Wealth of Na- 
tions" presumed the material debasement of darker 
peoples of colonial populations, or, in lieu thereof, such 
debasement of Slav, Serf or Serbian as would compensate 
the vanity of the superior people. Indirectly, Darwin 
taught, that the Negro closely approached the missing link 
between the savage beast and the human. Defoe delighted 
the world with a picture of the ideal economic status for 
the maintenance of white superiority over black man. These 
ideas the Negro wished to topple over. 

He felt it necessary to repudiate the indoctrination of 
racial hatred proclaimed throughout the world by "The 
Birth of a Nation. ' ' He set over against it the reception by 
all civilization of the Booker T. Washington life story. He 
wished to substitute recognition of worth in place of the 
things that debase and make ashamed. 

His great puzzle was the Anglo-Saxon, cold, austere 
and uncomplaisant. This Caucasian, fair of skin, with 



THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 437 

smooth and wavy hair, small cheekbones and elevated fore- 
head, appeared a worshipful master whose station, under 
God, was of preordained and predestined eminence. Occu- 
pying Eurasia from the Channel to the Ganges, together with 
the most favored portions of Africa and America, he was 
the author and agency for law and order for the world. St. 
Augustine, first archbishop and lawgiver of Canterbury, 
himself of African descent, the son of Monica and Patri- 
cius of Carthage, had left the Anglo-Saxon from semi- 
barbarism to his position of world renown. Would this 
Anglo-Saxon ever degrade the sons of women of Africa % 

The Negro's next puzzle was the French, urbane, 
amenable and suave. Negro emotions and French sensibili- 
ties mingled even without recourse to the vehicle of lan- 
guage. Imbued with all the finer Latin qualities and char- 
acteristics, the French ever invited the black man to a social 
world which the Anglo-Saxon denied him. E. W. Lightner, 
writing as a war correspondent, says : 

"Long previous to the war thousands of blacks from 
various States of Africa were in France, most especially 
Paris, at the universities, in business and in the better 
ranges of service. Everywhere and by all sorts and condi- 
tions of whites, they were treated as equals. During sev- 
eral visits to the French capital I, an American, knowing 
full well the prejudices of whites of this country against 
the race, was amazed to see the cordial mingling of all 
phases of the cosmopolitan population of the French capi- 
tal. Refined white men promenaded the streets with re- 
fined black women, and the two races mingled cordially in 
studies, industries and athletic sports. White and black 
artists had ateliers in common in the Latin quarter, , , ." 

Thus, at hob and nob with the civilities and honors and 
embraces of this social life, the Negro felt an unaccustomed 
giddiness seize him. This giddiness was not caused by lack 
of social poise, nor incited by the French, but it arose from 
the dilemma, or rather peril, in which the French inter- 



438 THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 

course placed him with relation to the adjustment of darker 
races to Anglo-Saxon civilization. 

Nevertheless in 1914, the approach to this court of 
honour and equality must be made by the Negro — and 
made under restraint sufficient to assure Anglo-Saxon ap- 
proval. This was, indeed, a complex problem. Traducers 
proclaimed his undeveloped capacities ; he answered with a 
claim of long repressed aptitudes. They spoke of intoler- 
able coalescence; he claimed that the times demanded im- 
perative coexistence. They said he had no soul ; he claimed 
the over-soul. They asserted his lecherous character; he 
referred to statistics. But when they claimed he was pro- 
German, he stripped for action. World war, and France, 
prostrate amid its terrors, offered the Negro the great op- 
portunity of the centuries to refute the broadcast propa- 
ganda of his enemies. 

Beyond the French appeared the German, ungainly, 
acrimonious and obdurate. Part Saxon, part Hun, part 
Vandal and Visigoth, a creature of blood and iron, he 
utilized every force of nature to exterminate his enemies. 
The Negro knew how to exploit none of nature's elemental 
energies. But he did know that he could learn how by seiz- 
ing and mastering the weapons of the enemy. 

Of the energies of earth he lacked both scientific mas- 
tery and the weapons which give them offensive power and 
direction. Of the air he lacked all control. Fire he utilized 
only for purposes of cooking food, but not for the develop- 
ment of machinery of warfare. He has no vessel upon all 
the seven seas. To seize and master and utilize these ener- 
gies appeared a thankless job, albeit a necessary one. He 
voted a grim "Aye." 

In doing so, he accepted the challenge of no mere 
enigma. Of his own volition, he entered upon the path that 
led through untrod and dangerous ground. It was his 
problem to cut the Grordian knot of Anglo-Saxon icy reserve 



THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 439 

that in the end fair England might assume as a policy 
of world administration the award of citizenship rights to 
the darker races in the sphere of influence of the league of 
civilized nations. It was a part of this problem to enter the 
equation with such deliberate caution as to upset no part of 
the nicely calculated adjustments of white to darker 
peoples. And it was also a part of his problem that he 
should not relinquish his grasp upon the factors that led to 
honor, recognition and equality. 

Germany was indignant as the Negro sought entry to 
the war. The South was sensitive. The North was quiz- 
zical. The whole world was hesitant. The too ardent favor 
which the Negro found in France gave offence to both 
America and England. Indeed, for the Negro to lift him- 
self too rapidly by his own bootstraps would have offended 
England, whose law prohibited emigration of foreign Ne- 
groes to South Africa. And it would also offend America, 
strangely jealous of any sign of unwanted assertiveness the 
Negro might display. The Negro accepted the challenge 
to penetrate this maze and labyrinth, with no surety, save 
God's good grace, of the fate that lay beyond. 

To attain the goal of Eecognition, it was necessary for 
him to demand of the people of England, France and Italy, 
that he be made subject to every test calculated to reveal 
his worth or inferiority as an individual, business, political 
or social equal of the allied peoples. The goal of Honor, he 
had attained in every war waged by America. He was with 
Jackson at New Orleans, a pioneer in the Mexican struggle, 
200,000 strong in the great civil crisis, the acme of terror 
to Geronimo in the later Indian wars, the hero of San Juan 
in the Spanish- American combat, and at Oarrizal in the 
latest Mexican imbroglio. By 1914, however, he had lost 
all rewards of honor which he had previously won. As for 
Equality, since the Civil War, he had been guaranteed this 



440 THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 

goal by three amendments to the Constitution of the United 
States. These forgotten amendments read in part : 

" Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as 
a punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have 
been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, 
or any place subject to their jurisdiction. . . . 

"All persons born or naturalized in the United States, 
and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the 
United States and of the State wherein they reside. No 
State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge 
the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United 
States; nor shall deprive any person of life, liberty, or 
property, without due process of law, nor deny to any per- 
son within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the 
laws. . . . 

"Representatives shall be apportioned among the sev- 
eral States according to their respective numbers, counting 
the whole number of persons in each State. . . . 

"The right of the citizens of the United States to vote 
shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any 
State on account of race, color or previous condition of serv- 
itude." 

America of 1914 was prone to look upon this part of 
the Constitution as a mere scrap of paper. From what 
point of vantage might the Negro hope for Honor, Recog- 
nition and Equality at the hands of the allied governments ? 

Land of the free and home of the brave, America is 
assumed to be so openhearted, munificent and princely, so 
liberal and so generous that could she but behold a man, of 
whatever hue, trampled in the mire, or hear his piteous cry, 
she would hasten to his aid and deliver Fim. So much does 
she admire genuine human worth that a man of heart and 
spirit and fortitude cannot perish while she is nigh at hand. 
Such, at least, is the assumption. 

From the debasement of industrial serfdom, the black 
workman wished the American people of 1914 to stop the 
trend of their strenuous existence and behold him . . • 



THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 441 

and test him . . . and proclaim him. He not only wished 
to be given a free field and a fair chance to work at the same 
job, for the same wage, during the same hours, and under 
the same conditions as the white workman, but he was 
ready to contend for all of the industrial privileges. 

The black man of business not only wished to enter into 
business competition with members of the Caucasian race 
under the same conditions as customarily pertain to such 
arrangements, but he was eagerly hoping to insure adjust- 
ment of this situation. The black social outcast wished 
"jim-crow" railway accommodations and signs proclaim- 
ing inequality of race to disappear. He wished sufficient 
education to enable Eim to develop his own society. He, 
too, was willing for a world war, for he had come to the 
point where he desired immediate and explosive change. 
Looked down upon because of his despised blood, the black 
American wished to elevate the status of his womankind, 
too long disproved and betrayed, to the level of free and 
brave womanhood of all the civilized world. Concerning 
this situation he was grim. It required but a spark applied 
here to explode with terrific outburst the sinister silence of 
the volcano. 

But in India, in South Africa, in Nigeria, and in all 
countries where English rule held sway, England was com- 
mitted to the policy of the white overseer or foreman for 
the black exponent of industry. Nor could she, save 
through war, adopt a policy of employing either Indians or 
Africans at the same job and for the same wage as that 
received by members of the British Labor Party. On the 
other hand, France, whose political life was convulsed from 
1894 to 1899 by principles of racial prejudice exhibited in 
the Dreyfus case, offered every form of equality to the 
darker races under her dominion. However, such equality 
offered by France was not equal in the sum total of advan- 
tage to the partial equality which the Negro received in 



442 THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 

America. The French workman gave more hours of toil 
for less monetary reward. The Negro wanted to bring the 
French principle of eouality to apply in American indus- 
try. But the British in 1914 could not agree to industrial 
equality for black men. Such agreement would upset the 
nicely calculated economic adjustments of the English sys- 
tem. America would take no step until forced to do so. 

It was the problem of the Negro, alone and single- 
handed, to grasp the opportunity afforded by world war to 
bring America to this point of recognition and democratic 
equality. The Negro, hitherto regarded as the monkey- 
man, the baby race, the black brute, trained by such ruthless 
propaganda to disrespect himself, hesitated. 

There was no leadership. No ringleader arrayed the 
mob. No chief appeared. No captain called the hosts. No 
generalissimo marshalled the black phalanx. No statesman 
sought entanglement in the meshes of the negro labyrinth. 
But the Negro proposition for a test of Negro fitness, like 
Topsy, "just growed." The young Negro possessed the 
clear eye to see the situation. College trained, his vision 
was not blinded by proximity to issues of the Civil War, 
nor by financial dependence, nor by excessive spirituality. 
The elder Negro possessed the oratorical and linguistic 
powers to state the case. Also college trained, of long ex- 
perience, possessing a widespread oratorical clientele, he 
spoke with a voice that stirred and played upon the heart- 
strings of all America. Never was such a proposition ad- 
vanced where men, old and young, despised and rejected, 
penniless and without credit, without acclaimed leadership 
or champion, sought position of honor and recognition and 
equality beside the best fighting forces of the world to help 
defeat the greatest military machine that hell had ever 
invented. 

Capital and labor, in previous years, had found the 
Negro wanting. State governments had utilized him for 



THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 443 

the purpose of increasing taxes and court fees. The na- 
tional government always handled him in accordance with 
political expediency, despite his unswerving loyalty. Capi- 
tal, labor, State government and national government had 
brought the Negro so low that he was ready in 1914 for any 
form of relief. 

The Negro was ready for change, for one reason, be- 
cause he had lost the honor of ministership to Haiti, Henry 
W. Purniss being succeeded by a white man. He was ready 
for change because, as the continental war proceeded, it 
became evident that though America might participate, her 
black colonel, Charles Denton Young, a graduate of West 
Point, and a distinguished soldier, might receive recogni- 
tion as the leader of black forces on foreign soil. He was 
ready for change because it appeared that there had been 
agreement that no American Negro should participate in a 
test of world equality upon the field of world honor and 
renown. 

In the American Navy Department, in 1914, time had 
destroyed the wake of Negro tradition, and the log had been 
deleted. The Negro has rendered honorable service in the 
navy. He was with Perry on Lake Erie. During the Civil 
War, Robert Smalls, a Negro, single-handed, stole the 
Union cruiser " Planter" from Charleston harbor and 
brought her into a Union port. Half the men who accom- 
panied Hobson into Santiago harbor were Negroes. Matt 
Henson was the only man with Peary at the Pole. John 
Jordan fired the first shot from Dewey's flagship "Olym- 
pia," opening the battle of Manila. The Negro wanted 
change because in 1914 the naval administration reluc- 
tantly offered Negroes positions as messmen and cooks. No 
seamen, no members of the merchant marine, no petty 
officers, no lieutenants, might apply. 

In the American Treasury Department, an ex-Senator 
of the United States, a colored man, Blanche K. Bruce of 



444 THE NEGEO IN THE WOELD WAE 

Mississippi, was honored by having created for him the 
office of register of the treasury. Subsequently the honor 
was conferred as a political favor upon Judson W. Lyons, 
of Georgia ; William T. Vernon, of Kansas, and J. C. Na- 
pier, of Tennessee. The democratic executive was good 
enough to offer this position, created as a direct result of 
the Negro's activities during and after the Civil War, to 
Adam E. Patterson, of Oklahoma. But so great was the 
pressure from opposing political forces that the name was 
withdrawn and another position of honor lost to the race. 
Ralph W. Tyler, auditor of the navy, resigned his position 
in 1912. A white man was appointed in his place. Screens 
were erected in this department, shutting the Negro from 
the view of his erstwhile fellow-clerk. He was sent down 
in the cellar to emphasize his degradation as he attended 
to his physical wants. The Negro cried aloud for change, 
and in his heart he cared not how soon this change should 
come, nor what form it should take. 

The American Post-office Department, by 1914, had 
taken over the bulk of the express service of the United 
States. The Negro was found available as a clerk, but sel- 
dom, if ever, as a foreman. The appointment of large num- 
bers of Negroes to mere clerical positions did not mean to 
the Negro recognition of merit. The Negro postmaster had 
disappeared. 

The American Department of the Interior is engaged 
with domestic affairs of the nation. The Negro constitutes 
one-tenth of the population and requires one-tenth of the 
necessities of American life. In 1914, a definite attempt 
was made in a bureau of this department to give the Negro 
recognition, honor and near-equality by the policy of segre- 
gating him into a Negro bureau. This policy had previ- 
ously been worked out in Negro school systems and in the 
army. But the Negro clerks of the Interior Department, 
by unanimous vote, rejected the proposition for this sort 



THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 445 

of change. The kind of recognition, the kind of honor and 
the kind of equality which thev desired had taken definite 
shape in their minds. 

The American Agricultural Department, it would ap- 
pear, should be made up of a large percentage of Negroes. 
The Negro was essentially an agriculturist before he came 
to America. He was brought to Virginia for the specific 
purpose of engaging in agriculture. His development of 
agricultural conferences in the South in recent years has 
been a great source of production. The Negro wanted 
change because this department employed messengers and 
clerks, but demonstrators seldom, if ever, of his color. 
Agricultural strategy in 1914 might well have been exon- 
erated if it had employed Negro chief demonstrators and 
engaged them in interstate contest for quantity production. 
In one Southern State the Negro operates the greater agri- 
cultural area. In another he will operate the greater por- 
tion of such districts at an early date. In still another 
many of the communities of large Negro population have 
hardly had a white foot set upon them in two decades. The 
Negroes of these three states could have furnished surplus 
food for any nation of the allies, but a Negro might receive 
honor if put in charge of their development at the proper 
salary and with full authority to act. In 1914, this honor 
must not be. 

In the American Department of Commerce the mas- 
ters of barter and exchange are exhibited. America seeks 
to develop the man who can strike a bargain and outbid his 
competitors. The Negro wanted change because, since the 
invention of salesmanship he has been declared out of the 
scope of this department. His social status prevents him 
from making the proper sales approach. The Negro of 
1914 came to this department only as a depositor of funds, 
or as a beggar for charity. He was not seriously regarded. 

Lastly, in the American Department of Labor, the 



446 THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 

Negro wanted change because he was regarded in 1914 as 
the man requiring a boss of another color. He was not re- 
garded as a master mechanic, manufacturer, artist or jour- 
neyman, unless the labor union, to which he was ineligible, 
so regarded him. 

In these many ways, by capital and labor, by state and 
national government, in every department, had the Negro 
of 1914 been reduced to the state of man without honor in 
his own country. If war be change, however explosive in 
form, in 1914 the Negro wanted the world war to come to 
America from whatever angle that promised him the great- 
est advantage. 

Equality in citizenship, for which the Negro yearned, 
meant parity of adjustment to conditions of life. Equality 
may be considered under three forms, industrial, business 
and political. As the terms are understood in America, the 
Negro was unanimous in 1914 in desiring industrial, busi- 
ness and political equality. He eagerly watched the fuse 
of war if perchance he might foresee from the consequent 
explosion the termination of Anglo-Saxon prejudice. It is 
but fair to say that he was not the only victim of discrimi- 
nation at that time. The sub-dominant nations, including 
the Jugo-Slavs, the Czecho-Slavs, the Serbs and the Serfs 
of Eussia, were subject to discrimination and deprived of 
the higher places of honor in the world's society. 

But the Negro was not immediately concerned with 
any one's status save his own. He was not concerned that 
Mexicans, Chinese, Japanese, Filipinos, Porto Ricans or 
South Africans did not enjoy the advantage of living on 
American soil. He was only concerned with the fact that, 
living in America, performing the full duties of American 
citizenship, he was denied the advantages and privileges of 
its possession, while Slavs and Serbs of Europe, with white 
skins, were accorded the fullest measure of democratic 
opportunity whenever and wherever they set foot on Amer- 



THE~NEGRCraTTHE WORLD WAR 447 

ican soil. The Negro wanted the world war to prove that 
he, too, was a coalescent element in the civilization of the 
world. 

To summarize the burden of the Negro in 1914 we may 
include Caucasian arrogance, hatred and prejudice of race, 
injustice of attitude and treatment, personal fear for life 
and property, improperly requited toil, unrewarded ambi- 
tion, unmerited disfavor and debased self-respect. What 
profound pathos in the love which he bore Old Glory ! 

THE WAR FOR DEMOCRATIZATION. 

Germany of 1914 aimed to throw off the yoke which 
she claimed England wished to fasten on her world rela- 
tionships. She aimed to dominate the world with German 
efficiency. She aimed to demonstrate German superiority 
and expose what she called Anglo-Saxon hypocrisy and 
cant. Already possessing the world's supply of potash, 
she struck directly at the coal and iron region of Belgium 
and Northern France. And she took them on the initial ad- 
vance. With potash, coal and iron, this was a Teutonic 
coup for industrial and commercial supremacy indeed. 
Now well might she dictate who should boycott English 
goods. Now well might she point to the political and military 
dishonor of the easy defeat of Belgium and France. Now 
well might she proceed to the disintegration of these coun- 
tries by the weapons of poverty, disease, hunger and bitter 
cold. Little did Germany dream what moral advantage she 
gave these overrun lands in the hearts of the millions of 
Negroes of the world. Germany felt assured that Negroes 
from all Africa would gloat over the assassination of Bel- 
gium. She was positive that American Negroes would re- 
joice. She expected the blacks of the world would rise up 
and hail her as the champion of a new day. 

In the twinkling of an eye she reduced Belgium to in- 
dustrial serfdom. She made the Belgian merchant a busi- 



448 THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 

ness pariah. She reduced the Belgian citizen to a political 
Helot, and imprisoned the burgomaster of Brussels, who 
refused to yield his citizenship honors. She made of Bel- 
gium a desert. The Belgian woman she whistled at and 
made a bye-word and reproach. And she called her treaty 
of Belgian neutrality a mere scrap of paper. Namur fell, 
and Charleroi and lovely Louvain. Liege succumbed in 
those hot August days, and Malines and Tournai and Ant- 
werp. Poor Belgian refugees, starved and naked, fled west- 
ward. In remembrance of barbarities in the Congo under 
the international commission which placed Belgium in con- 
trol, the American Negro quoted the poet: "The sins we 
borrow two by two we pay for one by one." But there was 
no disposition to gloat. The American Negro, be it said, 
came to the Belgian relief with money and goods and pray- 
ers and tears, and forgot the sins of the fathers of the suf- 
fering little kingdom. The secret of this reaction is re- 
vealed in the sympathy which the Negro bore toward an- 
other people reduced to his American status, without honor, 
recognition or equality. 

On, on, precipitate, headlong came Germany with dia- 
bolic efficiency, thrusting viciously at the heart of France. 
Running amuck through St. Quentin and Arras, Soissons 
fell and Laon. Rheims surrounded, astride the Marne, 
France awaited her invader. Joffre at the gate! Foch in 
charge of the defence! On came the Germans! They 
crushed his left ! They pulverized his right ! He dispatched 
his courier to headquarters with the famous message: "I 
shall attack with my centre. Send up the Moroccans!" 
These black troops, thrown in at the first Marne, with the 
British to their left, pushed the German right over the 
stream. Continuing their action, the colonials won on the 
Ourcq, and the Germans evacuatel Upper Alsace. Before 
their terrific attack, with the British steadily pressing be- 
side them, General Von Stein admitted his defeat bv the 



THE NEGRO IN THE WOELD WAR 449 

white and black allies. Paris was saved and Foch discov- 
ered to the allied world. How the hearts of black Ameri- 
cans thrilled as slowly the news filtered through to them of 
what the black colonials had done to hold the field for 
France ! It was then that they took it into their hearts that 
if the United States were ever called upon to participate in 
this struggle, they would not be denied a place of glory 
equal to that which their African brethren had achieved. 

But there was no time for resolve. The cataclysm in- 
volved in the threatened overthrow of English law and or- 
derly procedure throughout the world caused the American 
Negro to tremble. Always conservative, if there be any- 
thing to conserve, the Negro appreciated that English law, 
when properly interpreted, meant freedom and life and 
hope eternal to him. He was unwilling to take any chances 
with a German substitute. The overthrow of English law 
he looked upon as the impending crack of doom. On came 
the Germans toward Calais and the Straits of Dover! On 
to Zeebrugge! On to Ostend! To Ypres! In her supreme 
desperation, England looked about the world for a force to 
stay the invader until she could prepare to meet the fall 
force of the attack. She cared not whether aid be white or 
black, or brown or yellow. She called for help, or else 
Ypres should fall. Black men of Africa, brown men of In- 
dia, white and red men of Canada, and yellow men of the 
Far East heard her call. And while America lifted not a 
finger, the American Negro lifted up his heart to God and 
prayed that Anglo-Saxon justice, rigid and cold, so often 
denied him, should not perish in triumph of the Hun, who 
knew no law save his own lust and super-arrogation. 

Aboard the "Lusitania" there were no known men of 
color. But there were Caucasian women and children 
aboard. At what moral disadvantage did Germany put her- 
self with the black millions of America when she riotously 

celebrated the horrible death her submarines had meted out 
29— a. j. 



450 THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 

to these weak and helpless mortals. The " Belgian Prince," 
first of the vessels torpedoed without warning after Presi- 
dent Wilson's manifesto on the subject, had one lone black 
survivor to tell the tale of horror. He told it to his black 
brethren and they chafed under the diplomatic restraint, 
which relieved itself by polite letter writing. 

Germany threatened the Panama Canal by disruptionin 
Mexico and Haiti. The Mole St. Nicholas gave command 
of the canal to anyone of the great powers who might seize 
it. German influence was at work in Port au Prince. There 
occurred a riot involving both French and German Lega- 
tions. The President of Haiti was assassinated. The 
United States marines stepped in and took over the situa- 
tion. The American Negro heart went out to little Haiti. 
Hoping for the best, he feared the worst. 

In the midst of this situation, Pancho Villa attacked 
Columbus, New Mexico. Overnight Negro regiments of 
regular army and of national guard received word to go to 
the border. Black troopers of the 10th Cavalry were re- 
ported near Casas Grandes on March 17. The 24th Infan- 
try, colored, set out for Mexico, and another Negro com- 
mand was sent to Columbus on March 22. Through storm 
and dust and desert of alkali and cacti, the Negro troopers, 
led by Colonel Brown, came to Aguascalientes. They had 
passed through a terrible experience that must have 
daunted all save those who refuse to accept defeat. Hunger 
and thirst and mirage and exposure must all be overcome. 
Because of hardships many cavalrymen deserted on May 1, 
after three months' service in action. But every Negro 
trooper with Colonel Brown held on and defeated the Vil- 
listas in every skirmish. 

On a day in June, 1916, a troop from the 10th Cavalry 
approached the Mexican town of Carrizal. They were for- 
bidden to enter the town for purposes of refreshment. Cap- 
tain Boyd resolved to make the entry regardless of any 



THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 451 

regulations the Mexicans might seek to enforce. He was 
called upon by General Gomez to advance for a parley. As 
he advanced with his troopers, Mexicans spread out in a 
wide circle around them. Gomez, himself, trained the ma- 
chine gun which opened fire. The parley was a mere sham 
and decoy. Captain Boyd with Lieutenant Adair and 
eleven soldiers were killed. The rest of the troopers fell on 
the Mexicans, seized their gun, turned it upon them, and 
brought to death scores of their number, including Gomez 
himself. Seventeen black Americans were interned in 
Chihuahua, but were released eight days after upon demand 
by the American government. Captain Morey reported 
that his men faced death with a song on their lips. The 
lesson which the Mexicans learned by turning a machine 
gun on Negro troopers was of such force that no trouble 
has arisen since in this section of the southern republic. 
The Negro fell face forward in the scorching sand for his 
honor's sake, and for the honor of all America. He knew 
that his real enemy was not the Mexican, but the German 
who had furnished Mexico the means and the will to create 
disturbance on this side of the Atlantic. 

It was not until April, 1917, that President Wilson pro- 
claimed in Congress a state of war existing between the 
United States of America and the Imperial German Gov- 
ernment. At the call for volunteers, Negro regiments of 
guard, who had served in Mexico, were found at war 
strength and ready to double themselves overnight. These 
guard regiments represented the cosmopolitan Negro popu- 
lations of New York, Chicago, Washington, Baltimore and 
the State of Ohio. Everywhere the Negro dropped the mat- 
tock, left the ploughshare, poised himself at erect stature, 
passionately saluted Old Glory, answered "Here am I!" — 
counted fours, and away! Pro-German cried: "White 
man's war!" Propagandist yelled: "Cannon fodder!" 
Reactionary declared : " It must not be. ' ' The Negro burst 



452 THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 

the gate and entered the arena of combat in spite of all op- 
position to his service in honorable capacity under the 
United States government. 

The honesty of his purpose was discredited. The 
Anglo-Saxon mind could not conceive any more than could 
the German why a man downtrodden as the Negro should 
rush to arms, save as a baser means of eking out a liveli- 
hood better than his civilian state. The Anglo-Saxon little 
dreamed that the Negro approached the war not only to 
uphold his cherished tradition but also with definite ideas 
of honor, recognition and equality as its outcome. Or rather 
the Anglo-Saxon was too busy with his own affairs to ascer- 
tain the reason why. 

His loyalty impugned by those who did not wish to see 
him uniformed, his fidelity the subject of bitter sarcasm, 
his trustworthiness disputed, the Negro for once kept his 
own counsel. German agents were in his midst. They 
came to his table. They mingled with him in all social in- 
tercourse. They brought forward business propositions to 
seek to make the interests of Negro and German one. 
Southerners, noting this unaccustomed intimacy of black 
and white, announced that the Negro had gone over to the 
enemy. But the Negro kept his own counsel. He called 
upon the nation to investigate him. And when his loyalty 
was found untarnished, he called upon the nation to investi- 
gate itself. It was through the influence of Robert R. Mo- 
ton, of Tuskegee, that, after careful investigation, Presi- 
dent Wilson put the stain of pro-Germanism where it prop- 
erly belonged. Said the President : 

My Fellow-Cottnteymen : 

I take the liberty of addressing you upon a subject 
which so vitally affects the honour of the nation and the 
very character and integrity of our institutions that I trust 
you will think me justified in speaking very plainly about 
it. 



THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 453 

I allude to the mob spirit which has recently here and 
there very frequently shown its head amongst us, not in 
any single region, but in many and widely separated parts 
of the country. There have been many lynchings, and every 
one of them has been a blow at the heart of ordered law and 
humane justice. No man who loves America, no man who 
really cares for her fame and honour and character, or 
who is truly loyal to her institutions, can justify mob 
actions while the courts of justice are open and the govern- 
ments of the states and the nation are ready and able to do 
their duty. We are at this very moment fighting lawless 
passion. Germany has outlawed herself among the nations 
because she has disregarded the sacred obligations of law 
and has made lynchers of her armies. Lynchers emulate 
her disgraceful example. I, for my part, am anxious to see 
every community in America rise above that level, with 
pride and fixed resolution which no man or act of men can 
afford to despise. 

We proudly claim to be the champions of democracy. 
If we really are, in deed and in truth, let us see to it that 
we do not discredit our own. I say plainly that every 
American who takes part in the action of a mob or gives it 
any sort of countenance is no true son of this great democ- 
racy, but its betrayer, and does more to discredit her by 
that single disloyalty to her standards of law and of right 
than the words of her statesmen or the sacrifices of her 
heroic boys in the trenches can do to make suffering peoples 
believe her to be their saviour. How shall we commend 
democracy to the acceptance of other peoples, if we dis- 
grace our own by proving that it is, after all, no protection 
to the weak ? Every mob contributes to German lies about 
the United States what her most gifted liars cannot im- 
prove upon by way of calumny. They can at least say that 
such things cannot happen in Germany, except in times of 
revolution, when law is swept away. 

I, therefore, very earnestly and solemnly beg that the 
Governors of all the States, the law officers of every com- 
munity, and, above all, the men and women of every com- 
munity in the .United States, all who revere America and 
wish to keep her name without stain or reproach, will co- 
operate — not passively merely, but actively and watch- 



454 THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 

fully, — to make an end of this disgraceful evil. It cannot 
live where the community does not countenance it. 

I have called upon the nation to put its great energy 
into this war, and it has responded — responded with a 
spirit and a genius for action that has thrilled the world. I 
now call upon it, upon its men and women everywhere, to 
see that its laws are kept inviolate, its fame untarnished. 
Let us show our utter contempt for the things that have 
made this war hideous among the wars of history by show- 
ing how those who love liberty and right and justice and 
are willing to lay down their lives for them upon foreign 
fields, stand ready also to illustrate to all mankind their 
loyalty to the things at home which the}^ wish to see estab- 
lished everywhere as a blessing and protection to the 
peoples who have never known the privileges of liberty and 
self-government. I can never accept any man as a cham- 
pion of liberty, either for ourselves or for the world, who 
does not reverence and obej^ the laws of our own beloved 
land, whose laws we ourselves have made. He has adopted 
the standard of the enemies of his country, whom he affects 
to despise. 

Woodrow Wilson. 

The Negro braced himself, dismissed the German 
coldly from his household and f orebade the pro-German 
enter. From afar off the enemy propagandist could resort 
but to derision and ridicule. What an attempt at laughter 
he made when Haiti entered the side of the Allies ! How he 
pretended to be choking with the ridiculousness of the thing 
when Liberia offered her services ! He flouted the idea of 
Negro expertness in handling weapons of modern warfare. 
He ridiculed the idea of Negro discretion in ideas of likely 
foreign origin. He questioned the potency of the Negro's 
native talent to meet the European situation. It was the 
black man's patriotic fervor, ardent in response to the call 
of Old Glory, zealous with passionate love of fireside and 
homeland, poignant with the throbbing and thrilling re- 
action of public-spirited emotion toward France — which 
overcame all. 



THE NEGRO IN THE WOELD WAR 455 

The South asked three questions : 
First — Shall Negroes and whites of the South both re- 
main in America while the North conducts the war ? Sec- 
ond — Shall Negroes of the South remain at home while the 
flower of southern chivalry, drafted for service, is far away 
across the sea, annihilated in battle ? Third — Shall white 
men of the South be left at home while southern Negroes 
are drafted and go abroad to do distinguished service? 
These questions were resolved into the conclusion that 
southern Negroes and southern whites both must be drafted 
and sent against the German foe. There was no alterna- 
tive. 

It was altogther becoming and proper that a man 
whose race has suffered as the American Negro suffers to- 
day, should point the way to this goal of recognition, honor 
and equality which the Negro knew but as a tradition of 
those days following the Civil War when Grant adminis- 
tered the affairs of the triumphant party of freedom. 

One of those New Yorkers of Hebraic origin, whose 
Semitic qualities are of the highest ethical type, made the 
play for partial equality, for partial recognition, for par- 
tial honor for the Negro. Joel Spingarn suggested and 
propagated the idea of a military training camp for 
Negroes, where they might receive instruction in all 
branches of military service, be commissioned up to the 
grade of captain and receive the recognition, honor and 
equality due to such military rank as they might qualify 
for. In addressing Negro America, he said : 

"It is of highest importance that the educated colored 
men of this country should be given opportunities for 
leadership. You must cease to remain in the background 
in every field of national activity, and must come forward 
to assume your right places as leaders of American life. 
All of you cannot be leaders, but those who have the capac- 
ity for leadership must be given the opportunity to test 
and display it." 



456 THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 

Mr. Spingarn never realized what forces he would set 
in motion by mere presentation of this proposition. He 
merely pointed out the gate. The young Negro brushed 
aside the opponents among his own race of this policy of 
segregation. He disregarded the moral principle which 
had actuated the older Negroes of the Interior Department 
in refusing to accept segregation, and seized the oppor- 
tunity to produce some sort of change and readjustment. 
He must go up. He could go no lower than the policies of 
previous generations had brought him. 

Directly to the President of all the United States he 
went. " Give us a lift!" he cried, "We want to fight!" To 
the Secretary of War he shouted most unceremoniously: 
' ■ Give us place ! ' ' " But, ' ' was the indirect reply, i ' we have 
not the facilities at present. For instance, we have no 
bedding for the men whom you might muster." It was a 
young Negro Harvard graduate, Thomas Montgomery 
Gregory, of New Jersey, who advanced before Secretary 
Baker. "No bedding, Mr. Secretary? We will sleep on the 
floor — on the ground — anywhere — give us a lift ! ' ' 

The Anglo-Saxon mind is subject to orderly reactions. 
The Secretary of War was taken aback. He realized that 
the young Negroes had not ar>proached him to sell their 
labor. He gleaned that it was not for the purpose of barter 
and exchange they had come forward. Nor had they come 
with dreams of political advantage and social eclat, nor 
with vague glimmerings of spirituality. He was not ready 
to anwer. He dismissed the audience with a little more 
than the usual ceremony. One of the older Negroes of the 
group, whose uncanny insight had often appeared beyond 
the orbit of average intelligence, ventured this suggestion: 
"He will put it up to Pershing." 

And so the word got abroad that it would be left to 
Pershing as to how the Negro should be disposed of. It 
would be left to John J. Pershing, who in his earlier days 



THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 457 

had been instructor in a Negro college under the American 
Missionary Association. It would be left to the man who 
in 1892 had been a First Lieutenant in the 10th Cavalry in 
connection with the Sioux campaign in the Dakotas ; who 
had been with the 10th Cavalry in the Santiago campaign in 
1898 ; who had led Negro troops in the Philippines in 1899 
till 1903, commanding operations in Mindanao against the 
Moros ; and who had been in command of the Negro troops 
sent into Mexico in pursuit of Villa in March, 1916. It 
would be left to the man whose whole life had been spent in 
close contact with darker races. 

To this day the Negro does not know who was directly 
responsible for the organization of the camp such as Spin- 
garn proposed. It is probable that the honor belongs as 
much to Henry Johnson and Needham Roberts as to any 
one else. These black soldiers of Colonel Hayward's 15th 
New York Regiment, already in France with other regi- 
ments of Negro troopers of the national guard, were 
thrown across No Man's Land on a cold and foggy night as 
a lookout, far in advance of the sleeping command of thou- 
sands of white and colored American troops. The Hun 
planned their capture for the purpose of psycho-analytic 
research. It was Roberts who detected their stealthy ap- 
proach. He called to Johnson. In the twinkling of an eye, 
the two were surrounded by German troopers. The Ne- 
groes faced certain death, but they had lost all claim to 
honor, recognition or equality, if they did not take with 
them to eternity at least one German each. Surrounded 
they resolved to fight it out with shot and gun. Too, too 
slow! Around them the Germans swarmed like bees. 
Bayonets then ! Too, too close ! Aye, butts ! Wounded and 
winded, with knives, skulls, feet, teeth and nails, prehensile 
toe and larkheel, Henry Johnson and Needham Roberts 
defeated ten times their number of Germans and held the 
field of honor. This was a great self-revelation to the! 



458 THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 

Negro of his powers of more than rudimentary culture, and 
a mighty incentive from the guard to the soldiery of the 
92nd Division. 

It settled forever, in the mind of the Negro, what 
Pershing would say as to the advisability of training Ne- 
groes to deliver their best service for their country. That 
general's report electrified the entire nation. Said Persh- 
ing: 

"Reports in hand show a notable instance of bravery 
and devotion shown by two soldiers of an American colored 
regiment operating in a French sector. Before daylight 
on May 15, Private Henry Johnson and Private Roberts, 
while on sentry duty at some distance from one another, 
were attacked by a German raiding party, estimated at 
twenty men, who advanced in two groups, attacking at once 
flank and rear. 

"Both men fought bravely hand-to-hand encounters, 
one resorting to the use of a bolo knife after his rifle jam- 
med and further fighting with bayonet and butt became im- 
possible. There is evidence that at least one, and probably 
a second, German was severely cut. A third is known to 
have been shot. 

"Attention is drawn to the fact that the colored sen- 
tries were first attacked and continued fighting after receiv- 
ing wounds, and despite the use of grenades by a superior 
force. They should be given credit for preventing, by their 
bravery, the capture of any of our men." 

Whether this citation arrived May 19, 1917, by design 
or by accident, it served the purpose of dissolving com- 
pletely all opposition to the idea of training Negroes to halt 
the Hun. Immediately thereafter the War Department 
created a training camp for educated Negroes at Fort Des 
Moines, Iowa. 



THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 459 



THE CRISIS OF THE WORLD. 

Des Moines Camp was organized in June, 1917, to train 
Negroes to the military point where other military men 
must recognize them, honor them and receive them on the 
plane of equality due their rank. The camp was designed 
to develop Negroid snap and vigor to the maximum of mili- 
tary efficiency.) For this purpose, as at all other camps, 
there was created the background of the mother's urge, and 
the sister's urge, and the sweetheart's urge, the Y. M. C. A. 
spirit, the college fraternity spirit, and, in addition, the 
spirit of the elevation of a Negroid order. 

The change which came over the men was indicated by 
their music. Their first group singing of a Sunday con- 
sisted of Negro spirituals in spondaic and trochaic verse, 
and phrased in many minors. The vigor of blood produced 
by methodical training soon permitted of vocalization only 
in iambics. "Over There," "The Long, Long Trail," 
"Sons of America," were songs they sung of hope and not 
of sorrow. They connoted the Negro's reaction to the cos- 
mic urge. 

Over 1200 men took advantage of the experience of the 
trip to Fort Des Moines for training. Theirs was the 17th 
Provisional E. O. T. C, but the first of national propor- 
tions. Its quota was drawn from every section of the 
United States. The immediate destiny of the men selected 
for commission from this camp would be the training of 
colored draftees of African descent. 

Mr. Baker, the Secretary of War, in late summer, re- 
ferring- to the Des Moines Camp, said : 

"The work at Des Moines is progressing remarkably 
well, and the reports I have from it are very good. The 
spirit of the men is fine, and apparently this camp is going to 
do a great deal of good, both to the country and to the men 
involved." 



460 THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 

Colonel C. C. Ballou, of the War College, in charge of 
the work at Des Moines, said on August 19, in a Sunday 
interview : 

"The colored race constitutes more than ten per cent, 
of our population, and has, since the Civil War, furnished 
more than its quota of fighting men of the regular army. 
At home or on foreign soil the ranks of colored regiments 
are always full, while the white regiments have with diffi- 
culty been maintained at peace strength. To question the 
valor of the colored soldier is to betray ignorance of his- 
tory. This is the first opportunity in his history to prove 
on an adequate scale his fitness or unfitness for command 
and leadership. At Fort Des Moines, Iowa, on June 16, 
1917, there assembled the largest body of educated Negroes 
ever brought together for a single purpose. The candi- 
dates who survive are men of marked intelligence and abil- 
ity. Let any man who doubts the colored men's patriotism 
go to Fort Des Moines and see men who have given up pro- 
fessions, business and homes in order to learn to defend 
their country and merit a more considerate judgment of 
their race. Let any man who doubts the colored man's 
fidelity and loyalty come to Fort Des Moines and revise his 
opinions on what he will there learn of the spirit that has 
stood unswervinglv behind the commanding officer in every 
decision that he has been called upon to make, even though 
that decision involved sore disappointment and shattering 
of hopes. These men have been started out on correct lines 
and will have no false ideas to unlearn." 

Hardly any one in America, black or white, believed 
that 700 Negroes would be commissioned in the army of the 
United States to receive positions of honor not only beside 
her other troops, but on the field of battle with the flower 
of French and English between veteran soldiery. Every- 
thing possible to prevent, somehow or other, seemed to 
arise. The men were put through the bitterest drill in the 
hottest sun, under the most scorching orders the English 
language might devise. They represented every section of 



THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 461 

the United States. Not once did they break. The acid test 
came, when, already pricked by the numerous situations 
which arose to flout them, East St. Louis broke forth in the 
most savage pogrom Anglo-Saxon culture has ever revealed. 

While 1200 Negroes, training for leadership, were un- 
dergoing the terrific process of forced attrition, their 
nerves turned raw by army usage, East St. Louis burst 
forth. Tidings reached Des Moines that the Illinois mili- 
tia, called in to break up a race riot at East St. Louis, had 
joined the rioters and slaughtered the Negro population of 
the community. White women had joined in these attacks, 
dragging out of their houses colored women, girls and chil- 
dren, stoning and clubbing them to death. Aged Negro 
mammies, afraid to come out of their homes, had been 
burned to death by the mob which set fire to them. Black 
men had been thrown into Cahokia Creek and stormed with 
bricks each time they rose to the surface until drowned. A 
crowd of whites had torn a colored woman's baby from her 
arms, thrown it into the fire of a blazing dwelling, held the 
mother from its rescue until she, herself, was shot nigh unto 
death, and then allowed her to plunge into the fire to rescue 
her little one. Nor was this all. 

But out there in camp, isolated from the usual social 
life, July 2 and 3 and 4, Independence Day, was indeed a 
test of nerve, already tried and sore and raw, for the young- 
Negroes in training. Why should men train to fight for a 
country that permitted such barbarous atrocities against 
their race with impunity. In savage Memphis charred re- 
mains of Negroes burned at the stake before a gala mob of 
15,000, were thrown from an automobile in the Negro quar- 
ter of that city ! And the Negroes at Des Moines held on. 
It has not been recorded in history that there was here 
proposed any hostile demonstration, or that vengeance and 
ruthless retaliation was planned. Wise counsel prevailed, 
and the Negroes at Des Moines held on. 



462 THE NEGKO IN THE WOELD WAR 

For three months they held on without audible mur- 
mur. Negroes from civilian life, from the national guard, 
from the regular army, destined for every branch of the 
military service, defied any propaganda, by whomever in- 
vented, to break their morale. For three months they held 
on. And then word came they would not be graduated. A 
number, in disgust, left the camp. But the great bulk of 
them, although at the last moment learning that they could 
be assigned to no military branch save infantry, remained 
in camp for another month and were finally commissioned 
as officers in the national army. It was the eleventh hour 
of the eleventh day of the eleventh month of 1917 that they 
received their commissions forwarded from the President 
of the United States. The hour and day and month a year 
later became famous not only in their history, but in the 
history of the civilized world. 

They were given a grade neither high nor low. The 
rank of captain was granted to men who were to serve in 
France and England. The former country proudly made 
the Negro a general when he merited promotion ; the latter 
was committed to the policy of white officers for colonial 
troops. In assigning rank as high as the grade of captain, 
America took the middle ground. In view of the interna- 
tional situation, she could hardly be expected to do more. 
She had granted partial recognition, partial honor, partial 
equality. It was for the Negro to gain the rest. 

Seven hundred American Negroes commissioned! A 
baker's dozen of captains, six hundred odd lieutenants, and 
five hundred who dropped by the way. German propa- 
ganda had taken contrary suggestion and forced the Negro 
to this point of moral advantage. Plunder, arson, lynch- 
ing and burning at the stake were employed against him 
to break his morale or incite him against America. But he 
held on. Seven hundred of the " sub-species, dark of skin, 
wooly of hair, long of head, with dilated nostrils, thick lips, 



THE NEGRO IN THE WOBLD WAR 463 

thicker cranium, flat feet, prehensile great toe and lark 
heel" had passed every physical, mental, moral and social 
test and were commissioned in the American army. Doubt 
existed in the minds of every American citizen, including 
the Negro officers themselves, that they would ever see serv- 
ice overseas. 

Assigned to various camps, the problem of recognition 
by white soldiers of colored officers immediately was raised, 
and promptly settled. In only a few cases did open clashes 
occur. In far more cases was the Negro received with full 
merited honors of his status, and in some sections on the 
basis of complete equality. The Negro of a northern local- 
ity, accustomed to all immunities and privileges of his 
home, experienced great difficulty when first assigned to 
camps near Baltimore, Washington, Houston or Norfolk. 
He would have passed through this state of his develop- 
ment well enough, settling his difficulties himself as they 
arose, had not some evil genius prompted the commanding 
officer of the division in which he was finally to be assem- 
bled to issue Bulletin 35, which follows : 

"It should be well known to all colored officers and men 
that no useful purpose is served by such acts as will cause 
the i color question' to be raised. It is not a question of 
legal rights, but a question of policy, and any policy that 
tends to bring about a conflict of the races, with its result- 
ing animosities, is prejudicial to the military interest of the 
colored race. • 

"To avoid such conflicts the Division Commander has 
repeatedly urged that all colored members of his command 
and especially the officers and non-commissioned officers, 
should refrain from going where their presence will be re- 
sented. In spite of this injunction, one of the Sergeants of 
the Medical Department has recently precipitated the pre- 
cise trouble that should be avoided, and then called on the 
Division Commander to take sides in a row that should 
never have occurred had the Sergeant placed the general 
good above his personal pleasure and convenience. The 



464 THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAS 

Sergeant entered a theater, as he undoubtedly has a legal 
right to do, and precipitated trouble by making it possible 
to allege race discrimination in the seat which he was given. 
He is strictly within his legal rights in this matter, and the 
theater manager is legally wrong. Nevertheless, the Ser- 
geant is guilty of the greater wrong in doing anything, no 
matter how legally correct, that will provoke race ani- 
mosity. 

"The Division Commander repeats that the success of 
the Division, with all that success implies, is dependent 
upon the good will of the public. That public is nine-tenths 
white. White men made the Division, and they can break 
it just as easily if it becomes a trouble maker. 

"All concerned are again enjoined to place the general 
interest of the Division above personal pride and gratifica- 
tion. Avoid every situation that can give rise to racial ill- 
will. Attend quietly and faithfully to your duties, and 
don't go where your presence is not desired. 

"This will be read to all organizations of the 92nd Di- 
vision. 

"By command of Major-General Ballou: 

"Allen J. Greer, 
"Lieutenant-Colonel, General Staff, 
"Chief of Staff. 

"Official: 

"EDW. J. TURGEON, 

"Captain, Assistant Adjutant, 
"Acting Adjutant." 

It was an altogether modern type of Negro that in- 
formed the commanding general quietly, but firmly, that he 
had seriously impaired his usefulness by the tone of his bul- 
letin ; that he had proposed a principle which did not bode 
good for the future of white people of the world when 
seven-tenths of the world's population was of darker hue. 
It is to General Ballou 's credit that he admitted the ques- 
tion to debate, listened to reason, and capitulated. 

But a certain type of southern statesmanship was not 
amenable to reason. Despite the wishes of the President 



THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 465 

of the United States, there were published in the "Con- 
gressional Record" articles describing the peril involved in 
arming and training any black peoples for modern warfare. 
What measure of offense these articles gave to Morocco, to 
India, to Latin America, to Japan, to China, to Africa, loy- 
ally supporting all the cause of France and England, can 
only be judged by the rebuke which President Wilson gave 
when his chance came. 

It was in the Spring of 1918 when Germany struck 
through the British forces in Picardy. Then came the 
allies ' ' ' Hurry up ! " call. The enemy opened a tremendous 
drive against the British front, bombarding, storming and 
attacking along fifty miles from Croiselles to La Fere. On 
the first day, 16,000 British prisoners were taken. The 
shelling might be heard across the Channel in Dover. The 
German penetrated to the third British line, taking 25,000 
more prisoners. William Hohenzollern, himself, directed 
the drive from his headquarters at Spa. Peronne, Ham 
and Chauny fell. Vast stores and war material was lost, 
including tanks. At the Lotos club dinner, Lord Reading 
gave voice to a message from Lloyd George urging the 
United States to rush men to fill the gap. Albert fell. The 
real need of England and France became a question of re- 
serves. John J. Pershing, drawing no color line, offered 
the whole American army. 

Germany separated France from her ally. Apprized 
of America's preparations, she sought to destroy both 
France and England before the new enemy might hold 
place. Acceleration of all fighting forces to overseas serv- 
ice became the imperative duty. Not a moment was to be 
lost. The American Expeditionary Force must be expedi- 
tious. Casting about to find those ready to answer the call, 
America could not deny the preparedness of her 92nd Di- 
vision of colored troopers. 

On Germany came! On to Montdidier! To Amiens! 

30— A. J. 



466 THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 

To Hazebrouck! To Paris! Montdidier gone! "Hurry! 
Hurry!" cried Clemenceau. "Hurry! Hurry!" pleaded 
the aged Premier. He could no longer study the possible 
effects of any action of his office upon the future. His con- 
cern was the very present need. He wanted men, regard- 
less of what adjustments their presence might upset in 
future world relationships. 

So came a day when the Negro troopers could no 
longer be gainsaid. "Give me these men!" cried Joffre. 
"I am ready for the 92nd," announced Pershing. "We 
submit that they are men without honor, and of inferior 
American status," warned some Americans. "We shall 
test them," was Foch's laconic reply. "But they are black 
men with but 35 ounces of brain — a sub-species of man- 
kind," America warned again. 

And all France cried: "Send us men — men without 
fear of mortal danger — men of intrepid heart — men of 
audacity — men of fortitude — men of resolution — men of 
unquestioning, unreasoning, undying courage — men of 
elan — men of morale! Send Jew or Gentile — white men, 
yellow men, brown men, black men — it matters not ! Send 
us men who can halt the Hun ! ' ' 

So early in May of 1918 went up to sea, partly under 
their own officers, 90,000 and more American Negroes, 
registered as of African descent, and drafted to do battle in 
France. It was sub-species against super-man, broad head 
against long head, flat nose against sharp nose, thick cra- 
nium against Hun helmet. It was this unprecedented syn- 
thetic group of black men sailing the sea of darkness on a 
mission concerning the vital interests of Englishmen and 
Americans who had misused them for centuries, and con- 
cerning beloved France, which laid the real claim for honor 
and recognition and equality for the American Negro. 

The American Negro, as he bade his black comrades 
"Good-bye! Good luck! God bless you! Take keer o' yo' 



THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 467 

self!" felt in his heart that all America ought to forget her 
prejudices. He felt that if she did not do so, she was indeed 
only fit to be characterized as narrow-minded, mean- 
spirited, illiberal and warped — entirely unfit for the posi- 
tion of leadership in democratization of the world. 

So taken up with this idea was the entire Negro race 
that an editorial appearing in the " Crisis, " the leading 
Negro magazine, from the pen of the Negro scholar, W. E. 
B. Dubois, came as a dash of cold water from an upper win- 
dow. This article set the whole race agog. There was 
nothing in it about America's forgetting her prejudices, the 
idea which filled the Negro heart and soul and mind. It was 
entitled "Close Banks!" and read as follows: 

"This is the crisis of the world. For all the long years 
to come men will point to the year 1918 as the great Day of 
Decision, the day when the world decided whether it would 
submit to military despotism and an endless armed peace — 
if peace it could be called — or whether they would put down 
the menace of German militarism and inaugurate the 
United States of the World. 

"We of the colored race have no ordinary interest in 
the outcome. That which the German power represents to- 
day spells death to the aspirations of Negroes and all 
darker races for equality, freedom and democracy. Let us 
not hesitate. Let us, while this war lasts, forget our special 
grievances and close our ranks shoulder to shoulder with 
our own white fellow-citizens and the allied nations that 
are fighting for democracy. We make no ordinary sacri- 
fice, but we make it gladly and willingly with our eyes 
lifted to the hills." While many questioned his motive, all 
accepted his advice. 

While the grievance was not forgotten, it was not 
allowed to jeopardize the success of the issue to weaken the 
black man's allegiance. Ever}^ mother's son and father's 
daughter remained loyal under stress and strain which 
would have caused the white man to curse and die. 



468 THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 

THE FIELD OF ACTION. 

Regiments of Negro stevedores, earlier in the year, had 
been drafted and sent overseas. These men were drawn 
from a specific locality, and did not represent the entire 
nation. They were in command of white officers. They had 
been destined for the Service of Supply, a service which 
America performed so marvelously well that it is difficult 
to tell, if not here, where her chief glory lies. 

Black stevedores from Alabama, and Louisiana, and 
Mississippi, Virginia and the Carolinas, numbering far 
more than the entire black forces of the 92nd Division, 
packed and unpacked the American Expeditionary Force in 
a manner never attempted since Noah loaded the Ark. Rear 
Admiral Wilson and General McClure cited several regi- 
ments for exceptionally efficient work. The " Leviathan," 
formerly the German steamship " Vaterland," was unloaded 
and coaled, in competition with other white and black steve- 
dore regiments, by Company A, 301st Stevedores, young 
American Negroes, in fifty-six hours, a world record. 

What a cheer went up from the black stevedores of the 
far South when there landed in their midst a mighty band 
of black infantry, nearly 100,000 strong who, in a few short 
months had learned the use of powder and shot, of sword 
and broadsword, of bayonet and bludgeon, of trench knife 
and battle-ax. Cold steel or blackjack, smooth bore or 
sawed-off, machine gun or automatic, were all the same to 
them. It was a great experience for stevedore and infantry- 
man. And the stevedore's heart leaped to his throat as he 
saw the black officers of the 92nd Division maneuver and 
march away the men under their command. 

The black stevedore wondered why America had 
brought him so far under white officers to behold such a 
sight. He beheld black quartermasters, ranking and out- 
ranking captains, furnishing their men with provision and 



THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 469 

supply. The handling of purveyance and cutlery on a huge 
scale by black commissioned officers was a revelation to the 
black stevedore of the far South who had never seen such a 
sight in all his days. 

The stevedore beheld arrive Negro signal men, monitors 
of their troops and of a million whites behind them, death 
watch to the German enemy, destined to be sentinels and 
patrolmen of No Man's Land. He saw pass by black Ameri- 
can scouts and spies and lookouts and pioneers headed for 
the frontiers of France to gain an immortal halo of glory. 

The stevedore found in his midst elegantly groomed, 
but speechless Negroes whom, his friends whispered to him, 
belonged to the United States Intelligence Department. 
They had come, so the wide-mouthed stevedore was told, to 
pitt their 35 ounces of brain against the German's 45 
ounces, and to prove that the Hun back brain is surplus 
overweight and should be reduced to Negro proportions. 
They had come to furnish General Pershing information, 
news, tidings and dispatch, embassy and bulletin, report 
and rumor. And the stevedore wondered if General Persh- 
ing would expect these Negro men to report to him informa- 
tion with precision and correctitude. 

It was the Negro band, fresh from America, which 
gave the stevedore his greatest delight. Preceding the 
black troops everywhere, it produced a potpourri of full 
and semi-scores, melodies and plantation arias, that came 
as a refreshing novelty to weary English hearts and to the 
souls of jaded France. 

But there were no Negro "big gun" men. The steve- 
dore wondered if the black boys of the 92nd Division would 
have to get into the fight with Germany, depending upon 
the kind of barrage which some of the men whom he knew 
in America might lay down for him. True, the Negro artil- 
leryman had been left behind in America. At Camp Taylor 
he was spurned and rejected. But he refused to accept re- 



470 THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 

buff. He won his way into the heart of commanding 
officer and subaltern, gained his training, made a superior 
record, witnessed the outpouring of the entire white sol- 
diery of the camp to present arms and salute him as he 
went away to service, and arrived in France in breathless 
haste in time to lay down a perfect barrage for his black 
comrades as they advanced through the terrific fighting in 
the Argonne and the Marbache. Long will stevedore tradi- 
tion recite the story of how these black "big gun men" 
came by. 

The black stevedore represented a section of the United 
States. That section was thoroughly well represented. 
There was work done better than it ever had been done be- 
fore. But, on the other hand, the 92nd Division had been 
drawn from every possible corner of the United States 
where a quota might be raised. It was the 92nd Division 
especially, however great might be the deeds of local regi- 
ments of guard, that would decide the great ultimate ques- 
tion. Regiments of Negro guard troops from New York, 
Chicago, Washington, Baltimore, and the State of Ohio, 
and Negro pioneers from the mountain regions of the Caro- 
linas, might cover their respective localities with the sur- 
passing glory of their achievements. And every regiment 
of them did. But the real issue was wrapped up in the 
great 92nd Division, the Negro national army commanded 
in large measure by Negro officers, which stepped into the 
international arena on that fateful day in June, 1918. 

They landed when the German had spent his third 
offensive and was at the gates of Paris. Almost the first 
news which they received after they had settled on foreign 
soil was that Paris, the magic city which they had come so 
far to see, was destined to fall into the hands of the Ger- 
man. Albeit Chateau Thierry, the turning point of the de- 
cisive struggle of 1918, was only achieved when, for the 
war, a total of more than a million black men of four conti- 



THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 471 

nents had been annihilated, the 92nd Division was eager 
for the fray — was anxious to tread the field of action for the 
sake of honor, and recognition and equality. It was at 
Chateau Thierry, on a day soon after the arrival of the 92nd 
Division in France, that Foch, the eminent generalissimo, 
but then an almost unknown quantity, again gave voice to 
laconicism: "The offensive shall begin and shall continue. 
Bring up the colonials ! ' ' America was thrown into battle 
holding honored position beside Gouraud's invincible 
Africanders. The Hun was halted in his tracks, thrown 
back across the second Marne, and hunted like a wolf over 
the Hindenburg line and into his native lair. 

Soissons, Rheims, Verdun, St. Dizier and Chemin des 
Dames, all saw Negro troops of the United States in violent 
action. In the Marbache, at Belie Farm, and in the Bois 
de Tege d'Or, the Negro guard regiments and the Negro 
92nd Division went over and at the Hun. 

At Voivrette Farm and in the Bois de Frehaut, other 
troops of this same division smote German superman hip 
and thigh. In Voivrette Woods and in the Bois de Chemi- 
not, at Moulon Brook and Seilie Bridge and Epley the 92nd 
Division again victoriously contested the field of honor, 
against the best soldiers Prussia might afford. From July 
until November, their brothers of the Negro guard regi- 
ments, of Negro pioneers and Negro casuals were within 
earshot of the murderous rumble of contending artillery. 
By November 8 every command in the Negro American di- 
vision, including the units of guard, had more than once or 
twice been at the front or over the top and at them. 

Ralph W. Tyler, of Ohio, a Negro on the staff of Gen- 
eral Pershing, representing the Bureau of Public Informa- 
tion, says of Hill 304 : 

"I have learned that Hill 304, which the French so 
valiantly held, and which suffered such a fierce bombard- 
ment from the Germans that there is not a single foot of it 



472 THE NEGRO IN THE WOELD WAR 

but what is plowed up by shells, and whose sides, even to- 
day, are literally covered with the corpses of French sol- 
diers who still lie where they fell, was later as valiantly held 
by the colored soldiers from the United States, who fought 
with all the heroism and endurance the best tradition of the 
army had chronicled. The colored soldiers who held that 
bloody and ever historical Hill 304 had the odds against 
them, but like Tennyson's immortal 'Six Hundred,' they 
fought bravely and well, firm in the belief 'it was not theirs 
to reason why — it was theirs to do and die.' And like the 
patriots they were, they did do, and this war's history will 
so record." 

The Prussian, at last, sought safety in flight. Brit- 
isher, Frenchman, Italian, Portuguese, Canadian, black 
and white American were at his heels. Italy created a de- 
bacle in Austria. And then, wonderful news came through 
of what was happening in the Near East. 

It had been impossible for the Negroes of America to 
come to France and preserve the nicely calculated adjust- 
ments which England had set up through the years. The 
East Indian, the Arabian, the Egyptian could not but ob- 
serve, and observing, fail to understand why American 
Negroes could be entrusted in command of troops, if they 
were not given the same recognition and honor and equal- 
ity. Quietly England prepared them all. Under General 
Allenby and dark-skinned officers of the East, the black 
Caucasians and the brown Caucasians and the yellow Cau- 
casians fell upon the Turk, until, regardless of his German 
master, he cried aloud for terms. The horde of dark- 
skinned captors of Turkey, under the British supreme com- 
mand, threatened and attacked Bulgaria, who quickly suc- 
cumbed. So came the Turkish armistice, and the Bulga- 
rian armistice and the Austrian armistice. 

The Prussian fled from the field of battle. He was not 
swift enough. Brought to bay, he cried for mercy. All of 
the Negro American force was to be hurled at him in the 



THE NEGRO IN THE WOBLD WAR 473 

greatest stronghold of the world, Metz. He pleaded with 
the American President for armistice, and was referred to 
Marshal Foch. It was the great war hero, with the Hohen- 
zollern house of cards tumbled about him, who decided that 
for three days, until November 11, fighting must continue, 
and that in those last hours the Germans must feel at the 
hands of all the allies the severest punishment that could 
be meted within a limited time. Britishers, Frenchmen, 
men of all allied nations sought the honor. The American 
Negro could not be denied. Although regiments of Negro 
guard and of the 92nd Division had but recently been in 
action for a period of from three to five weeks, they craved 
the honor of being out in front at the stern and bitter end. 
It was practically the entire Negro fighting force of Amer- 
ica which, under its own officers, went over the top at day- 
break on the final morning of the great four years' strug- 
gle, side by side with white men of various nationalities, 
who, like them, were ready and most fit for sacrifice or serv- 
ice. In the last hours, when life seemed sweeter than all 
creation, there thousands of black men of all regiments 
overseas fell in search of the coveted honor of being near- 
est Berlin as the thunderous crash and din ceased, to roll 
no more. Hours before the order came for the supreme and 
final sacrifice, Negro signal men had caught from the air 
the message which indicated what was to be their special 
honor. There was not a man to desert or seek asylum else- 
where. All went over the top together ! 

At the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the elev- 
enth month of 1918, the order came to cease firing. The 
92nd Division of Negro troops stood at Thann and before 
Metz, in advance of the progress of troops of all America. 
The ground which they trod had not been occupied by other 
than German troops in 40 years. It was the field of honor, 
and recognition and equality, and must be theirs of neces- 
sity. Nature had ruthlessly perfected this type of black 



474 THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 

native-born American for the high duties of a soldier. The 
war was over. Allies and Americans said to "h im : 

"As brothers we moved together — as brothers — to the 
dawn that advanced — to the stars that fled — rendering 
thanks to God in the highest, that He, having hid His face 
through one long night behind thick clouds of war, once 
again will ascend above us in the vision of perpetual 
peace.' ' 

The Negro felt that, as the ancient Eomans were too 
faithful to the ideal of grandeur in themselves not to re- 
lent, after a generation or two, before the grandeur of Han- 
nibal, so he will not ever be the mere son of a peri. 

The Negro knew that he could do one thing as well as 
the best of men — a greater thing than Milton or Marlowe 
or Charlemagne ever did — he could die grandly the death. 
Face forward on the flats of Flanders, in Picardy and Lor- 
raine he died grandly, to make the world safe for democ- 
racy. For we of America must remember, in all our get- 
ting on and up in the world, that, as a psychological 
weapon, the bristling bayonet was incomplete until a stal- 
wart, desperate black Negro American citizen got behind 
it to fight, not for his gain, but for the uplift of the masses 
of humanity. 

The war was over. It was still a small voice within 
that told the Negro hosts: "As this hath been no white 
man's war, neither shall it be a white man's peace." 

THE AFTERMATH. 

But yesterday the nation tried to think of the Negro 
as a southern problem, the solution of which belonged to 
statesmanship of the South. Often we have endeavored to 
think of him as a national problem, and have tried to per- 
suade the national government to take in hand matters of 
widespread national interest wherein he was involved. But 
now we must of necessity think of the Negro as an interna- 



THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 475 

tional problem, ramifications of which are bound up in the 
roots of aspiration and kindred feeling and powerful po- 
tentiality of Frenchman and Britisher, of Asiatic and Slav, 
and of the great bodies of darker peoples of all the world. 

As the Negro becomes an international problem, no 
single section of a country can be entrusted with the admin- 
istration of matters pertaining to him. Such administra- 
tion may be assigned by international conclave to a particu- 
lar country as its national problem, but the proper chan- 
nels of administration of international policy will be up 
from sectional caucus, through national agency to the in- 
ternational parliament, and down from such parliament or 
league, through national agencies to the section involved. 
And, furthermore, sectional caucus, unless it would fail in 
policies of its advocacy, and suffer modification by the Con- 
gress or parliament of its central governmental adminis- 
tration, must henceforth regard the Negro not as an aggre- 
gate all in a mass, but as a synthesis, composed of grada- 
tions from lowest to superior. This is the new concept 
which the war of 1918 has forced upon America, in spite of 
the bias of 1914. 

Civilization left the parting of the ways when Wood- 
row Wilson's rallying cry for world democratization lead 
America into the war. It decided to seek the path of Peace 
not along the lines of permitted autocracy, but of firmly 
and thoroughly well administered democracy. In adminis- 
tering democratic government, Negro regiments, graded 
from private to superior officer, came first as an academic 
proposition, and, finally, as an actuality. They came four 
hundred thousand strong. No group of that number can 
longer be considered as a mere accumulation of black men. 
One hundred thousand Negroes of the 92nd Division and 
regiments of guard have been commanded on the field of 
action by black headmen, with white headlight. They have 
taken their objectives with speed and control and the man- 



476 THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 

agement of both of these elements of transfused morale has 
been in the hands of colored college men or their military 
equals. 

The hour of decision to make the world safe for democ- 
racy was the crisis of civilization. Victory on the fields of 
France has been the satisfactory denouement. The ques- 
tion naturally arises : Shall there be a happy ending of the 
great drama for the white American and a tragic end- 
ing for the Negro? Or, rather, as the American brother- 
hood gathers about the charmed circle and smokes the pipe 
of peace, shall the Negro report: "I see and am satisfied?" 

In other words, shall the 92nd Division of Negro fight- 
ers and the greater hosts of black war workers overseas, re- 
turn to America with honor in theory, but not pursued in 
fact to its logical finality? Shall these black bulwarks of 
the business of world war find the door of the business 
world of peace slammed in their faces f Shall these black 
survivors of terrific struggle for world democracy return 
home only to be declared unfit to vote an American ballot ? 
Shall the black soldier hero be allowed to take his croix de 
guerre into a jim-crow car? Shall the black Red Cross 
nurse, rushing to the aid of benighted humanity regardless 
of color, be refused accommodation at places of public pro- 
prietorship whither she may seek rest or refreshment? 
Tragedy begets tragedy. Seventeen seventy-six begot 1861, 
and 1861 begot 1914. 

The times demand decisive action. Sociological error, 
committed today, will cause malformation of an important 
member of the American body politic. It will cause the 
ship of state to ride an uneven keel. This ship of state must 
be brought to her ancient moorings, the Declaration of In- 
dependence, the Gettysburg Address of Lincoln, and the 
Farewell of Old John Brown on the scaffold. 

The tumult has died. Eevelry and shouting fill every 
program. Is the Negro to return unheralded to homeland, 



THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 477 

and with his eyes to the hills, undergo patting and pitying 
and be given a place in the corner % Or are the colored boys 
in khaki to announce their return by a vigorous knocking at 
the gate? Shall they have cause to cry to America: "A 
house divided against itself cannot stand!" And shall they 
knock and knock and knock until America sets herself to 
wonder what has this army Negro to do that he becomes so 
unceremonious % Or shall they find the gate wide open and 
triumphal arches erected in every section of the country in 
their honor to signify that defeat of Gierman autocracy 
means democratization of every section of the entire world ? 
An international conscience demands for the Negro hero a 
happy ending of it all. 

The Negro looks to the military agencies of America 
to produce a genuine peace wherein he may live happy ever 
after. Eegarded in America as the most alien of aliens be- 
fore the war, he demands recognition today as the most 
loyal of loyalists. But yesterday Anglo-Saxon prejudice 
persisted in viewing him as a physical alien, a mental alien, 
a moral alien and a social alien. The Negro is willing to 
discuss no further this prejudicial conception of himself 
forced home by libelous propaganda and by governmental 
administration for hundreds of years, if the agencies of re- 
construction will perfect and put in operation a vigorous 
Americanization policy in his behalf. 

Military life has taught the Negro the advantage de- 
rived from the use of pure food and balanced ration. It 
has taken him from the ghetto into the pure air of the open 
country, and filled his lungs with deep draughts of the free 
breezes of France. It has removed him from the tempta- 
tion to imbibe the beverage that destroys human faculties 
and has accustomed him in a measure to the beneficial use 
of purified water. It has undertaken through carefully 
selected work, exercise and recreation to perfect the habits 
of digestion, assimilation and elimination. The result has 



478 THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 

been indeed marvelous. No America Negro who went to 
fight for humanity will return to America as the same 
physical being. No American will dare stand before the 
returned Negro trooper and say : i ' Behold a sub-species of 
mankind, wooly of hair, long of head, with dilated nostrils, 
thick lips, thicker cranium, flat foot, prehensile great toe 
and larkheel. Yea, behold him, dark of skin, whose men- 
tality is like unto a child, and closely related to the anthro- 
poid ape ; whose weight of brain is only comparable to that 
of the gorilla." Where is the American who will dare 
stand before any Negro trooper returned from France and 
thus mock and deride him? Military agency has com- 
pletely destroyed the physical concept which the white 
world had of the Negro in 1914, by placing him in the focus 
of Caucasian binocular vision, wherein his better attributes 
become visible in their synthetic relation. 

In addition, military life has sharpened the mental 
powers of the Negro in command to meet the highest ex- 
actions of modern warfare. Colonel Charles Denton Young, 
Negro graduate of West Point, if we may trust the record, 
is capable of the same high character of mental processes as 
John J. Pershing. Military test has proven before the 
world that the Negro is no mental alien, but heir to all the 
ages of Anglo-Saxon, Eoman, Greek and Egyptian culture. 

In France the American Negro has produced no 
notorious offenders against civil or military usage. He has 
arisen to the moral concept of high responsibility for the 
future of his race in the estimation of all mankind. There 
is no story of moral degeneracy which has yet come from 
abroad concerning him. Pitfall, temptation and oppor- 
tunity for vice and crime have all been shunned in light of 
preparation for the higher service. The Negro has proven 
his power of moral restraint while guided by leadership of 
his own color. As a social being he has sacrificed his life 
for the highest form of social existence, democracy. Who, 



THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 479 

then, is there to call him alien ? Today he is no longer 
Negro, nor Afro-American, nor colored American, nor 
American of African descent, but he is American — simply 
this, and nothing more. 

He has been raised to erect stature and made a man by 
the military branch of the United States Government, be- 
cause of signal service to the American peoples. His 
prayer is that this military government long may live as 
such to train the great mass which he calls kin into a syn- 
thetic whole. 

As he evolved from a student in a military training 
camp to military leadership, so he desires the great military 
organization of America to continue to exist, that through 
its agency he may attend the training camps which lead to 
industrial, business, political and social success. Universal 
military education for me and mine and all other Ameri- 
cans is his slogan, and his aim is to recreate the America of 
the early Seventies, which became hardened and callous 
through the years by reason of resistance to the German 
menace of autocracy, but now removed. 

This American has made good in public. He has 
demonstrated both efficiency and initiative. He has com- 
pelled popular belief to conceive him as a man. The Cau- 
casian world he has caused to perceive that he might func- 
tion as a valuable and serviceable element of twentieth cen- 
tury civilization. Will the Anglo-Saxon issue to him the 
warrant of immunities and privileges certifying that he is 
four-square with the dominant opinion of mankind, and, 
therefore, entitled to superior status ? 

To this dark-skinned American are attributed all ele- 
ments of beauty and racial grandeur. Forever in survival 
of the world's most fit, he goes on, blending readily with 
civilization's high ideal, philosophically tolerating abuse 
offered by the less refined, effecting a racial consciousness 
of purity in inter-social relationships, adapting himself 



480 THE NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR 

with symmetry and poise to the tasks of the world, and bow- 
ing in humble respect before the higher laws whose harmo- 
nies order and rectify all creation. 

What will the black Rip Van "Winkle behold as he 
walks through the corridors of the American Department 
of State twenty years hence 1 Will he behold a great black 
mass still at the veriest bottom of our governmental organ- 
ization, or will he be caused to marvel at the synthetic 
gradations of black American from lowest to superior 1 As 
he views progress in all departments of the government, 
will he see this real American organized synthetically in all 
branches of the service, or will he behold him still employed 
as the boy or the mere high private % Time and the great 
heart of America will tell. 

The center of gravity of world interest of 1914 has 
shifted and come to rest at a spot most significant for 
darker peoples. Victory to all participants in its glorious 
achievement must be less disastrous than defeat. In order 
to satisfy the liberal opinion of the world, some form of 
autonomy must be devised for the newly organized man in 
America. Durable peace requires that American prejudice 
be utterly and forever stamped out ; first by the recon- 
structed organization of the American Expeditionary 
Force, which beheld its organizations of every race and 
creed under fire and in action ; second, by the American 
people of every locality, who have forced upon them by 
world war the new concept of a branch of the species once 
considered inferior ; and, third, by the powers of the world, 
who must prevent the upgrowths in America from offering 
malignant germs of unrest to their own systems of national 
government. 

After the Negro has proved his value and worth in all 
of these trying ways, when after this he asks for a full 
measure of equal rights, what American will have the heart 
or the hardihood to say him nay ? 



The DISGRACE of DEMOCRACY 

By KELLY MILLER 

August 4, 191?. 
Hon. Woodrow Wilson, 

President of the United States, 
The White House, 

Washington, D. C. 
Mr. President: 

I am taking the liberty of intruding this letter upon you 
because I feel that the issues involved are as important as any 
questions now pressing upon your busy attention. The whok 
civilized world has been shocked at the recent occurrences in 
Memphis and East St. Louis. These outbreaks call attention 
anew to the irritating race problem of wjiich they are but 
eruptive symptoms which break forth ever and anon with 
Vesuvian violence. For fully a generation American states- 
manship has striven to avoid, ignore or forget the perplexing 
race problem. But this persistent issue will not down at om 
bidding, and cannot be shunted from public attention by other 
questions however momentous or vital they may seem to be. 

I know that I am taking unwarranted liberties with the cere- 
monial proprieties in writing such a letter to the President of 
the United States at the present time. It may seem to partake 
of the spirit of heckling after the manner of the suffragists. 
Nothing is further from my purpose. XT o right-minded Amer- 
ican would wish to add one featherweight to the burden that 
now so heavily taxes the mind and body of the President of 
the United States who labors under as heavy a load as human 
nature is capable of sustaining. Every citizen should strive 
to lighten rather than to aggravate that burden. It is, never- 
theless, true that any suppressed and aggrieved class must 
run athwart the established code of procedure in order that 
their case may receive a just hearing. Ceremonial codes 
were enacted by those who are the beneficiaries of existing 
order which they wish to perpetuate and make unchangeable. 
They would estop all social and moral reform. The ardent 



suffragists find it necessary to ruthlessly violate the tradi- 
tional and decorous modes of procedure in order to promote 
the reform which they have at heart. On one occasion you 
felt forced to terminate an interview with a committee of 
suffragists because they persisted in cross-examining the 
President of the United States. 

There are 10,000,000 loyal citizens of African descent in the 
United States. They are rigorously excluded from a voice in 
the government by which they are controlled. They have no 
regularly constituted organ through which to present their 
case to the powers that be. They have no seat nor voice in 
the council of the nation. The late Doctor Booker T. Wash- 
ington was the accepted spokesman and mediator of the race, 
but he has no successor. Under former administrations there 
was a small appointive official class of Negroes. Though 
derisively designated as the "Black Cabinet," they were on 
the inside of the circle of governmental control to which they 
had ready access in presenting the claims of the race. But 
under the exaction of partisan exigencies even these have been 
excluded from official position under your administration. 
Several weeks ago a delegation of colored men from the State 
of Maryland sought an interview with you concerning the 
horrible crime of East St. Louis. You were good enough to 
write Senator France that you were too busy with other 
pressing issues to grant the request of an interview. The 
failure of all other methods is my only excuse for resorting 
to an open letter as a means of reaching you and, through 
you, the nation at large, concerning the just grievances of 
10,000,000 loyal American citizens. 

The Negro feels that he is not regarded as a constituent part 
of American democracy. This is our fundamental grievance 
and lies at the basis of all of the outrages inflicted upon this 
helpless race. It is the fundamental creed of democracy that 
no people are good enough to govern any other people without 
their consent and participation. The English are not good 
enough to govern the Irish. The Russians are not good 
enough to govern the Finns. The Germans are not good 
enough to govern the Belgians. The Belgians ^r?? sot good 



enough to govern the people of the Congo. Men are not 
considered good enough to govern women. The white peo- 
ple of this country are not good enough to govern the Negro. 
As long as the black man is excluded from participation in 
the government of the nation, just so long will he be the 
victim of cruelty and outrage on the part of his white fellow 
citizens who assume lordship over him. 

These periodic outbreaks of lawlessness are but the out- 
growth of the disfavor and despite in which the race is held 
by public opinion. The evil is so widespread that the remedy 
lies in the hands of the national government. 

Resolutions pending before both houses of Congress look 
toward investigation of the outrage at East St. Louis. I un- 
derstand that you are sympathetically disposed toward this 
investigation by Federal authority. Such investigation is im- 
portant only to the extent that it implies a tardy recognition 
of national responsibility for local lawlessness. There is no 
expectation that any additional comprehensive information 
will result. You may rest assured that there will be a half 
dozen similar outbreaks before this investigation is well under 
way. Indeed, since the East St. Louis atrocity there have 
already been lynchings in Georgia, Louisiana, Pennsylvania 
and Montana. Every intelligent American knows as much 
about the essential cause of this conflict as he will know after 
long and tedious investigation. The vital issues involved are 
apt to be obscured by technical wranglings over majority and 
minority reports. What the nation needs is not investigation 
of obvious fact, but determination and avowed declaration on 
the part of the President speaking for the people of the United 
States to put an end to lawlessness wherever it raises its 
hideous head. 

I know that it has been steadily maintained that the Fed 
eral Government has no authority over lynchings and local 
race conflicts. This is not a political contention. This view 
was maintained under the administrations of Harrison, Cleve- 
land, McKinley, Roosevelt and Taft. Indeed, President 
Cleveland, that great American democrat, came nearer recog- 
nizing Feaerai responsmiiiiry m such matters than any Presi- 



dent before or since his time. During the administration of 
President McKinley, an atrocious riot occurred in Wilming- 
ton, N. C, the city in which you spent your boyhood as the 
son of a minister of the Gospel. Scores of innocent Negroes 
were killed and hundreds were driven from their homes. But 
it was maintained that the President had no authority to lnr 
terfere. A horrible lynching took place at Alexandria, Vir- 
ginia, a few miles from the White House, which the President 
might possibly have observed through his field glasses. And 
yet it was looked upon as a purely local affair for which the 
Federal Government had no responsibility nor concern. Yoa 
recall the atrocities of the riot in Atlanta, a city in which yoia 
spent your young manhood as a practitioner of law. But here 
again even President Roosevelt could find no ground for 
interference. 

These outbreaks are not limited to the Southern States, 
although they occur there more frequently than elsewhere 
because of the relatively larger number of Negroes in the 
total population. There have been lynchings and burnings 
in Illinois, Kansas, Delaware, Ohio, Indiana, Colorado and 
other Northern States. The evil is indeed national in its 
range and scope, and the nation must provide the remedy. 
Striking indeed is the analogy between the spread of lawless- 
ness today and the extension of the institution of slavery two 
generations ago. Like slavery, lawlessness cannot be local- 
ized. As the nation could not exist half slave and half free 
under Abraham Lincoln, so it cannot continue half law-abiding 
and half lawless under Woodrow Wilson. The evil tendency 
overcomes the good, just as the darker overlaps the brighter 
phase in the waning moon. If the Negro is allowed to be 
lynched in the South with impunity, he will soon be lynched 
in the North, so easy is the communicability of evil sugges- 
tion. The lynchings of Negroes has become fashionable iia 
some parts of the country. When a black man is accused of 
wrongdoing, "Lynch the Negro!" is the cry that springs 
spontaneously to the lips of man, woman and child. The 
fashion is rapidly spreading throughout the whole nation. If 
slavery could have been isolated and segregated in the South 



that institution might have existed even down to the present 
time. And so, if lynching could be localized and limited to 
the Southern States the nation as a whole would have less 
pretext for interfering. But this cannot be done. Senator 
Tombs of Georgia boasted that he would call the roll of his 
slaves under the shadow of the Bunker Hill monument, an 
ambition which, doubtless, might have been gratified had not 
the nation arisen in its moral might and blotted out the in- 
iquitous institution altogether. Unless the aroused conscience 
of the American people, efficiently asserting itself through 
Federal authority, shall stamp out the spirit of lawlessness, it 
is easy to prophesy that the Neg/© will yet be lynched not 
only in the shadow of the Bunker Hill monument, but on the 
campus of your beloved Princeton. Already there have been 
burnings of human beings in the bleeding State of Old John 
Brown, and in the city where lie the remains of Abraham 
Lincoln. During the past thirty years nearly 3,000 Negroes 
have been lynched in various parts of the country. Scores of 
these have been burned at the stake. Even the bodies of 
women have been fed to the flames. Thousands of localities 
in the majority of the States of the Union have experienced 
these outrages. Our fair land of liberty is blotted over with 
these foul spots which cannot be washed out by all of the 
waters of the ocean. It is not easy to calculate the number 
of persons who have been involved in these lynchings, either 
as participants or as acquiescent lookers-on, all of whom were 
potential murderers. So general and widespread has become 
the practice that lynching may well be characterized as a 
national institution, to the eternal disgrace of American 
democracy. 

Lynching cannot be confined to the Negro race. Hundreds 
of white men have been the victims of lawlessness and vio- 
lence. While these words are flowing from my pen, news 
comes over the wire that a labor agitator has been lynched in 
the State of Montana. Although the Negro is at present the 
chief victim of lawlessness, like any other evil disease, it can- 
not be limited by racial lines. 

It is but hollow mockery of the Negro, when he is beaten 



and bruised and burned in all parts of the nation and flees to 
the national government for asylum, to be denied relief on 
the ground of doubtful jurisdiction. The black man asks for 
justice and is given a theory of government. He asks for 
protection and is confronted with a scheme of governmental 
checks and balances. 

Mr. President, you are commander-in-chief of the Army 
and Navy. You express the voice of the American people in 
the great world conflict which involves practically the entire 
human race. You are the accepted spokesman of the world 
democracy. You have sounded forth the trumpet of democra- 
tization of the nations, which shall never call retreat. But, 
Mr. President, a chain is no stronger than its weakest link. 
A doctrine that breaks down at home is not fit to be propagated 
abroad. One is reminded of the pious slaveholder who be- 
came so deeply impressed with the plea for foreign missions 
that he sold one of his slaves to contribute liberally to the 
cause. Why democratize the nations of the earth if it leads 
them to delight in the burning of human beings after the 
manner of Springfield, Waco, Memphis, and East St. Louis 
while the nation looks helplessly on? You add nothing to the 
civilization of the world nor to the culture of the human spirit 
by the technical changes in forms of government. The old 
adage still remains true: 

"For forms of government let fools contest — 
What's best administered — is best." . 

If democracy cannot control lawlessness, then democracy 
must be pronounced a failure. The nations of the world have 
a right to demand of us the workings of the institutions at 
home before they are promulgated abroad. The German 
press will, doubtless, gloat with ghoulish glee over American 
atrocities against the Negro. The outrages complained of 
against the Belgians become merciful performances by grue- 
some comparison. Our frantic wail against the barbarity of 
Turk against Armenian, German upon Belgian, Russian upon 
Jew, are made of no effect. It cannot be said that these out- 
breaks are but the spontaneous ebullitions of popular feeling, 



without governmental sanction or approval. These outrages 
occur all over the nation. The nation must be responsible 
for what it permits. Sins of permission are as reprehensible 
as sins of commission. A few years ago a Turkish ambassador 
was handed his passports by you for calling attention to the 
inconsistency between our national practice and performance. 
The nation was compelled, with a spirit of humiliation, to ac- 
cept the reproach which he hurled into our teeth: "Thou 
hypocrite, first cast out the beam out of thine own eye; and 
then shalt thou see clearly to cast out the mote out of thy 
brother's eye." Every high-minded American must be touched 
with a tinge of shame when he contemplates that his rallying 
cry for the liberation of humanity is made a delusion and a 
snare by these racial barbarities. 

It is needless to attempt to place the blame on the helpless 
Negro. In the early stages of these outbreaks there was an 
attempt to fix an evil and lecherous reputation on the Negro 
race as lying at the basis of lynching and lawlessness. Statis- 
tics most clearly refute this contention. The great majority 
of the outbreaks cannot even allege rapeful assault in extenua- 
tion. It is undoubtedly true that there are imbruited and 
lawless members of the Negro race, as there are of the white 
race, capable of committing any outrageous and hideous 
offense. The Negro possesses the imperfections of his status 
His virtues as well as his failures are simply human. It is a 
fatuous philosophy, however, that would resort to cruel and 
unusual punishment as a deterrent to crime. Lynching has 
never made one Negro virtuous nor planted the seed of right 
doing in the mind of a single American citizen. The Negro 
should be encouraged in all right directions to develop his 
best manly and human qualities. Where he deviates from 
the accepted standard he should be punished by due process 
of law. But as long as the Negro is held in general despite 
and suppressed below the level of human privilege, just so 
long will be produce a disproportionate number of imperfect 
individuals of evil propensity. To relegate the Negro to a 
status that encourages the baser instincts of humanity, and 
then denounce him because he does not stand forth as a model 



of human perfection, is of the same order of ironical cruelty 
as shown by the barbarous Teutons in Shakespeare, who cut 
off the hands and hacked out the tongue of the lovely Lavinia, 
and then upbraided her for not calling for perfumed water to 
wash her delicate hands. The Negro is neither angelic nor 
diabolical, but merely human, and should be treated as such. 
The vainglorious boast of Anglo-Saxon superiority will no 
longer avail to justify these outrages. The contact, adjust- 
ment and attrition of various races of mankind constitute a 
problem which is coterminous with the ends of the earth. The 
lighter and stronger races are coming into contact with the 
weaker and darker ones. The stronger breeds of men are 
relating themselves to the weaker members of the human 
family in all the ends of the earth. How does it happen that 
in the United States alone, of all civilized lands, these atro- 
cious outrages are heaped upon the helpless Negro? The 
English nation has the largest colonial experience and success 
since the days of the Roman empire, and has come into rela- 
tionship with the various weaker breeds of men in all parts 
of the world. But everywhere under English jurisdiction law 
and order prevail. In the West Indies, where Negroes out- 
number the whites 20 to 1, rape and lynching have scarcely 
yet found a place in the local vocabulary. In Brazil, under a 
Latin dispensation, where a more complex racial situation ex- 
ists than in the United States, racial peace and good-will 
prevail. Belgium furnishes the only parallel of civilized na- 
tions, in the atrocious treatment of a helpless people placed 
in their charge. But even the Belgians were forced to modify 
the rigors of their outrageous regime in the Congo, under the 
bombardment of moral sentiment of the more enlightened 
nations of the world. America enjoys the evil distinction 
among all civilized nations of the earth of taking delight in 
murder and burning of human beings. Nowhere else do men, 
women and children dance with ghoulish glee and fight for 
ghastly souvenirs of human flesh and mock the dying groans 
of the helpless victim which sicken the air, while the flickering 
flames of the funereal pyre lighten the midnight sky with their 
lurid glare. 



Mr. President, the American conscience has been touched 
and quickened by the East St. Louis outbreak as it has never 
been before. Press and pulpit have tried to forget these out- 
rages. At each fresh outbreak they would lash themselves 
into a spasm of virtue and exhaust the entire vocabulary of 
denunciation, but, forthwith, would lapse into sudden silence 
and acquiescent guilt. By some fatuous delusion they seem 
to hope that the atrocities of Springfield, Wilmington, Waco, 
Atlanta, Memphis and a thousand other places of evil report 
would never be repeated, nor the memory rise up to condemn 
the nation. But silence and neglect merely result in com- 
pounding atrocities. The East St. Louis outbreak convinces 
the nation, as it has never been before, that the time for action 
has come. The press is not content with a single editorial 
ebullition, but by repeated utterances insists that the nation 
shall deal with its most malignant domestic evil. Reproach 
is cast upon your contention for the democratization of the 
world, in face of its lamentable failure at home. Ex-Presi- 
dent Roosevelt, who is the greatest living voice now crying 
aloud for individual and national righteousness, has openly 
proclaimed, in dramatic declaration, that these outbreaks make 
our moral propaganda for the liberation of mankind but a 
delusion and a snare. Mr. President, can this nation hope 
to live and to grow in favor with God and man on the basis 
of a lie? A nation with a stultified conscience is a nation 
with stunted power. 

Democracies have frequently shut their eyes to moral in- 
consistencies. The democracy of Greece conferred privilege 
upon a mere handful of freemen in the midst of ten times their 
own number of slaves. The Greek philosophers and states- 
men were supremely unconscious of this moral obliquity. The 
Declaration of Independence which declared for the equality 
of all men was written by a slaveholder. The statesmen of 
the period, however, hoped that slavery would be of short- 
lived duration, and would effect its own solution in the process 
of time. But Thomas Jefferson was keenly sensitive of the 
moral inconsistency of this attitude, and declared that he trem- 
bled when he considered that God is just, and that His justice 



would not slumber forever. Abraham Lincoln is perhaps the 
only great statesman of democracy who was absolutely con- 
sistent in his logical attitude and moral sincerity. The nation 
believed in his moral integrity. He uttered no word of cryptic 
meaning. The people heard him gladly because the words 
that fell from his lips were not the coinage of his intellect, but 
the mintage of his heart. The embattled hosts under his high 
command marched to victory with the Battle Hymn of the 
Republic resounding in their souls: 

"As He died to make men holy, 
Let us die to make men free " 



To them this phrase had no remote and deferred meaning, but 
was immediately applicable to their black brother in chains. 
It was not a barren ideality, but a living impulse. You hart 
given the rallying cry for the present world crisis. But this 
shibboleth will be robbed of instant meaning and power unless 
it applies to the helpess within our own gates. If the sons 
and grandsons of the heroes who battered down the walls of 
slavery a half century ago could be made to feel with un- 
reserved certainty a renewal of the moral energy which urged 
their fathers to that high resolve, they would, with heightened 
enthusiasm for humanity, demolish the Teutonic bulwarks of 
oppression across the seas. 

Doctrine is more than deeds, if it be sound doctrine. Deeds 
are the outgrowth of doctrine. Doctrine lives forever with 
persistent potentiality. Doctrine rules the world or throws 
it into confusion. The power of words is far greater than 
the meaning of the author. It makes no difference what lay 
in the minds or practice of the statesmen of Greece. They 
planted the seeds of democracy, and all mankind will become 
the beneficiary of the sowing. The intendment of the signers 
of the Declaration of Independence boots but little. That 
document will stand for all time as the gospel of human lib- 
erty. When you speak of the democratization of the world 
and the liberation of mankind, you are setting up a standard 
to which the whole world must rise in the ages to come, de- 
spite its attitude at the present time. It may be far from the 



purpose of our present day statesmen to admit the Negro into 
this democracy on terms of equality with the rest But in 
spite of the purpose of this statesmanship, this must be the 
ultimate goal of human democracy. A democracy of race or 
class is no democracy at all. It is with projected imagination 
that the Negro will endure until these high-sounding phrases 
have borne their full fruition. Any other class of the Amer- 
ican people, under the strain of distress to which the Negro 
has been subjected, would imitate Job's distracted wife, and 
curse the white God and die. The Negro will neither curse 
nor die, but grin and live — albeit beneath that grin is a groan- 
ing of spirit too deep for utterance. The Negro says to his 
country, "Though you slay me, yet will I serve you." 

The Negro's patriotism is vicarious and altruistic. It seems 
to be an anomaly of fate that the Negro, the man of all men 
who is held in despite, should stand out in conspicous relief 
at every crisis of our national history. His blood offering is 
not for himself or for his race, but for his country. This 
blood flows like a stream through our national history, from 
Boston Commons to Carrizal. Crispus Attucks was the first 
American to give his blood as an earnest of American inde- 
pendence. The Negro was with Washington in the dark days 
of Valley Forge, when the lamp of national liberty flickered 
almost to extinguishment. The black troops fought valiantly 
with Jackson behind the fleecy breastworks at New Orleans. 
Two hundred thousand black boys in blue responded to the 
call of the immortal Lincoln for the preservation of the Union. 
The Negro was the positive cause of the Civil War, and the 
negative cause of the united nation with which we face the 
world today. 

The reckless daring of Negro troops on San Juan Hill 
marked the turning point in that struggle which drove the last 
vestige of Spanish power from the Western world. It was 
but yesterday that we buried with honor at Arlington Cem- 
etery the Negro soldiers who fell face forward while carrying 
the flag to the farthest point in the heart of Mexico, in quest 
of the bandit who dared place impious foot on American soil. 
In complete harmony with this marvelous patriotic record, it 



so happened that it was an American Negro who proved to 
be the first victim of ruthless submarine warfare, after you 
had distinctly announced to Germany that such outrage would 
be considered tantamount to war. In all of these ways has 
\ the Negro shown, purposely or unconsciously, his undeviating 
devotion to the glory and honor of the nation. Greater love 
hath no man than this, that he lay down his life for his 
country. 

In he midst of the world war for the democratization of 
mankind the Negro will do his full share. I have personally 
always striven to urge the Negro to be patriotic and loyal in 
every emergency. At the Reserve Officers' Training Camp in 
Fort Des Moines there are over one hundred young colored 
men who have come under my instruction. The deviltry of 
his fellow men cannot devise iniquites horrible enough to drive 
him from his patriotic devotion. The Negro, Mr. President, 
in this emergency, will stand by you and the nation. Will 
you and the nation stand by the Negro? 

I believe, Mr. President, that to the victor belong the spoils, 
especially if these spoils be human liberty. After this war for 
the liberation of mankind has been won through the Negro's 
patriotic participation, he will repeat the lines of the old 
familiar hymn somewhat louder than ever: 

"Behold a stranger at the door, 
He gently knocks, has knocked before, 
Has waited long, is waiting still, 
You treat no other friend so ill." 

As a student of public questions I have carefully watched 
your attitude on the race problem. You have preserved a luke- 
warm aloofness from the tangled issues of this problem. In 
searching your writings one finds little or no reference to this 
troubled phase of American life. It seems that you regard 
it as a regrettable social malady to be treated with cautious 
and calculated neglect. There is observable, however, a pas- 
sive solicitude. You have kept the race problem in the back 
part of your mind. Your letter to Bishop Walters during 
your first campaign for the Presidency, expressing a generous 



concern for the welfare of the race, though of a general and 
passive character, caused many Negroes to give you their 
political support. Under the stress and strain of other press- 
ing issues and the partisan demands of your political sup- 
porters you have not yet translated this passive purpose into 
positive performance. There is, however, something of con- 
solation in the fact that while during your entire career you 
have never done anything constructive for the Negro, you 
have never done anything destructive against him. Your con- 
structive opportunity is now at hand. The time has come to 
make lawlessness a national issue, as a war measure if not 
from any higher consideration. As a patriotic and military 
necessity, I suggest that you ask the Congress of the United 
States to invest you with the power to prevent lynching and 
to quell lawlessness and violence in all parts of the country 
during the continuance of the war. Or at least you might 
quicken the conscience of the nation by a stirring message to 
Congress calling attention to this growing evil which is gnaw- 
ing at the vitals of the nation. It is entirely probable that 
before the war is over you will have to resort to some such 
measure to control internal disturbances on other accounts. 
It is inconceivable that this nation should spend billions of 
dollars and sacrifice the lives of millions of its citizens without 
domestic uprising and revulsion. In such a time it becomes 
necessary for the President to exercise all but dictatorial 
power. The country is willing to grant you anything you ask 
which, in your judgment, would promote the welfare of the 
nation in this crisis. You asked Congress to grant undis^ 
criminated use of the Panama Canal as a means of securing 
nterrational good-will and friendship, and it was granted. 
In /ace of the impending conflict, you demanded that Con- 
gress should grant the eight-hour demand of the laboring men, 
and it was done. The suffragists who guard your going In 
and coming out of the White House were duly convicted under 
process of law, but were immediately pardoned by you to 
avoid embarrassment in this war emergency. You asked for 
billions of dollars and millions of lives to be placed at your 
disposal for the purpose of carrying on the great conflict. ** d 



it was willingly granted. The people have willingly placed 
in your hands more power than has ever been exercised by 
any member of the human race and are willing to trust yo* 
in the use of that power. I am sure that they will grant this 
additional authority during the continuance of the present war 
in order to secure the unqualified patriotic devotion of all oi 
the citizens and to safeguard the honor of democracy and the 
good name of the republic. 

Mr. President, Negroes all over this nation are aroused as 
they have never been before. It is not the wild hysteria of 
the hour, but a determined purpose that this country shall be 
made a safe place for American citizens to live and work and 
enjoy the pursuits of happiness. Ten thousand speechless men 
and women marched in silent array down Fifth Avenue in 
New York City as a spectral demonstration against the wrongs 
and cruelties heaped upon the race. Negro women all over 
the nation have appointed a day of prayer in order that 
righteousness might be done to this people. The weaker sex 
of the weaker race are praying that God may use you as the 
instrument of His will to promote the cause of human freedom 
at home. I attended one of these 6 o'clock prayer meetings in 
the city of Washington. Two thousand humble women 
snatched the early hours of the morning before going to their 
daily tasks to resort to the house of prayer_ They literally 
performed unto the Lord the burden of their prayer and song, 
"Steal Away to Jesus." There was not a note of bitterness 
nor denunciation throughout the season of prayer. They 
prayed as their mothers prayed in the darker days gone by, 
that God would deliver the race. Mr. President, you can help 
God answer their prayer. May it not be that these despised 
and rejected daughters of a despised and rejected race shall yet 
lead the world to its knees in acknowledgment of some con- 
trolling power outside of the machinations of man ? As I sat 
there and listened in reverent silence to these two thousand 
voices as they sang, — 

"On Christ? the Solid Rock, I stand, 
All other ground is sinking sand — — = 



I could not but think of the godless war which is now con- 
vulsing the world — a war in which Christian hands are dyed 
in Christian blood. It must cause the Prince of Peace to groan 
as in His -dying agony when He gave up the ghost on the cross. 
The professed followers of the Meek and Lowly One, with 
heathen heart, are putting their trust in reeking tube and iron 
shard. God uses the humbler things of life to confound the 
mighty. It may be that these helpless victims of cruelty and 
outrage will bring an apostate world back to God. 

Mr. President, ten million of your fellow citizens are look- 
ing to you and to the God whom you serve to grant them relief 
in this hour of their deepest distress. All moral reforms, grow 
out of the people who suffer and stand in need of them. The 
Negro's helpless position may yet bring America to a realizing 
sense that righteousness exalteth a nation, but sin is a reproach 
to any people. 

Yours truly, 

KELLY MILLER. 



"Race Adjustment" 

By Prof. Kelly Miller 



Price $2.00; 306 Pages 



This book has been on the market for several years, and 
is recognized as a standard work in the subject. There is 
still a steady demand for it, which attests its permanent value 
as a contribution to race literature. 

An eminent author inTa leading Northern university has 
recently secured permission to incorporate a chapter from 
"Race Adjustment" in a standard work which he is preparing 
on sociology. 



Press Comments 

Springfield Republican; "A strong and forceful putting of the case for the 
negro." 

Dallas News: — "The author is a cultured man, a forceful and most pleasing 
writer, interesting from the first sentence of the first chapter to the close 
of the book. 

Louisville Courier-Journal: "One of the best written books on the race 
problem." 

Chicago News:— "The book is written with great ability, in English quite 
free from fault, and its logic is fairly inexorable." 

Cleveland Plain-Dealer: — "Professor Miller shows himself a master of an 
incisive style of writing and a keen logician." 

San Francisco Examiner:— "The writer's appeal should command universal 
respect and the clearness of his dispassionate reasoning should form a mov- 
ng appeal to the justice and honor of his countrymen." 

New York Evening Post— "As admirable for itslcalmness and good temper 
as for its thoroughness and skill." 



This book contains 602 pages. 



Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. 
Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide 
Treatment Date: ^y 

Preservationfechnologies 

A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION 

111 Thomson Park Drive 
Cranberry Township, PA 16066 
(724) 779-2111 



